View source for Psychedelic therapy

{{Short description|Use of psychedelic drugs as treatment}}
{{See also|List of investigational hallucinogens and entactogens}}
'''Psychedelic therapy''' (or '''psychedelic-assisted therapy''') refers to the proposed use of [[psychedelic drug]]s, such as [[psilocybin]], [[ayahuasca]], [[LSD]], [[psilocin]], [[mescaline]]<ref>{{cite web | url=https://doi.org/10.58248/RR09 | doi=10.58248/RR09 | title=Psychedelic drugs to treat depression | date=2023 | last1=Naulls | first1=Stephen | last2=Bunn | first2=Sarah }}</ref> (peyote), [[DMT]], [[5-MeO-DMT]],<ref>https://www.alberta.ca/external/news/health-fs-psychedelic-assisted-therapy.pdf</ref>[[Ibogaine]],<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.everydayhealth.com/integrative-health/psychedelic-therapy/guide/ | title=Therapeutic Psychedelics: Psychedelic Medicine in a Therapy Setting | date=25 September 2024 }}</ref>[[MDMA]],{{refn|MDMA and ketamine are not a classical psychedelics but are sometimes discussed alongside classical psychedelics due to similarities in their [[psychoactive]] and potentially therapeutic effects.<ref name="Nutt-2019">{{cite journal |vauthors=Nutt D |title=Psychedelic drugs-a new era in psychiatry? |journal=Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=139–147 |date=2019 |pmid=31636488 |doi=10.31887/DCNS.2019.21.2/dnutt |pmc=6787540}}</ref>|group=note}} to treat [[mental disorder]]s.<ref name="reiff-et-al-2020">{{cite journal |vauthors=Reiff CM, Richman EE, Nemeroff CB, Carpenter LL, Widge AS, Rodriguez CI, Kalin NH, McDonald WM |display-authors=6 |title=Psychedelics and Psychedelic-Assisted Psychotherapy |journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry |volume=177 |issue=5 |pages=391–410 |date=May 2020 |pmid=32098487 |doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.2019.19010035 |s2cid=211524704}}</ref><ref name="marks-and-cohen-2021">{{cite journal |vauthors=Marks M, Cohen IG |title=Psychedelic therapy: a roadmap for wider acceptance and utilization |journal=Nature Medicine |volume=27 |issue=10 |pages=1669–1671 |date=October 2021 |pmid=34608331 |doi=10.1038/s41591-021-01530-3 |doi-access=free |s2cid=238355863}}</ref> As of 2021, psychedelic drugs are controlled substances in most countries and psychedelic therapy is not legally available outside clinical trials, with some exceptions.<ref name="marks-and-cohen-2021"/><ref name="pilecki-et-al-2021">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pilecki B, Luoma JB, Bathje GJ, Rhea J, Narloch VF |title=Ethical and legal issues in psychedelic harm reduction and integration therapy |journal=Harm Reduction Journal |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=40 |date=April 2021 |pmid=33827588 |doi=10.1186/s12954-021-00489-1 |doi-access=free |pmc=8028769}}</ref>

The procedure for psychedelic therapy differs from that of [[therapy|therapies]] using conventional [[psychiatric medication]]s. While conventional medications are usually taken without supervision at least once daily, in contemporary psychedelic therapy the drug is administered in a single session (or sometimes up to three sessions) in a therapeutic context.<ref name="nutt-et-al-2020">{{cite journal |vauthors=Nutt D, Erritzoe D, Carhart-Harris R |title=Psychedelic Psychiatry's Brave New World |journal=Cell |volume=181 |issue=1 |pages=24–28 |date=April 2020 |pmid=32243793 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2020.03.020 |doi-access=free |s2cid=214753833}}</ref> The therapeutic team prepares the patient for the experience beforehand and helps them integrate insights from the drug experience afterwards.<ref name="johnson-et-al-2008">{{cite journal |vauthors=Johnson M, Richards W, Griffiths R |title=Human hallucinogen research: guidelines for safety |journal=Journal of Psychopharmacology |volume=22 |issue=6 |pages=603–620 |date=August 2008 |pmid=18593734 |doi=10.1177/0269881108093587 |pmc=3056407}}</ref><ref name="garcia-romeu-richards-2018">{{cite journal |vauthors=Garcia-Romeu A, Richards WA |title=Current perspectives on psychedelic therapy: use of serotonergic hallucinogens in clinical interventions |journal=International Review of Psychiatry |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=291–316 |date=August 2018 |pmid=30422079 |doi=10.1080/09540261.2018.1486289 |s2cid=53291327}}</ref> After ingesting the drug, the patient normally wears eyeshades and listens to music to facilitate focus on the [[psychedelic experience]], with the therapeutic team interrupting only to provide reassurance if adverse effects such as anxiety or disorientation arise.<ref name="johnson-et-al-2008"/><ref name="garcia-romeu-richards-2018"/>

As of 2022, the body of high-quality evidence on psychedelic therapy remains relatively small and more, larger studies are needed to reliably show the effectiveness and safety of psychedelic therapy's various forms and applications.<ref name="bender-hellerstein-2022">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bender D, Hellerstein DJ |title=Assessing the risk-benefit profile of classical psychedelics: a clinical review of second-wave psychedelic research |journal=Psychopharmacology |date=January 2022 |volume=239 |issue=6 |pages=1907–1932 |pmid=35022823 |doi=10.1007/s00213-021-06049-6 |s2cid=245906937}}</ref><ref name="smith-et-al-2022">{{cite journal |vauthors=Smith KW, Sicignano DJ, Hernandez AV, White CM |title=MDMA-Assisted Psychotherapy for Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Systematic Review With Meta-Analysis |journal=Journal of Clinical Pharmacology |volume=62 |issue=4 |pages=463–471 |date=April 2022 |pmid=34708874 |doi=10.1002/jcph.1995 |s2cid=240072663}}</ref><ref name="reiff-et-al-2020"/> On the basis of favorable early results, ongoing research is examining proposed psychedelic therapies for conditions including [[major depressive disorder]],<ref name="bender-hellerstein-2022"/><ref name="romeo-et-al-2020">{{cite journal |vauthors=Romeo B, Karila L, Martelli C, Benyamina A |title=Efficacy of psychedelic treatments on depressive symptoms: A meta-analysis |journal=Journal of Psychopharmacology |volume=34 |issue=10 |pages=1079–1085 |date=October 2020 |pmid=32448048 |doi=10.1177/0269881120919957 |s2cid=218873949}}</ref> [[anxiety]] and [[depression (mood)|depression]] linked to [[terminal illness]],<ref name="bender-hellerstein-2022"/><ref name="schimmel-et-al-2022">{{cite journal |vauthors=Schimmel N, Breeksema JJ, Smith-Apeldoorn SY, Veraart J, van den Brink W, Schoevers RA |title=Psychedelics for the treatment of depression, anxiety, and existential distress in patients with a terminal illness: a systematic review |journal=Psychopharmacology |volume=239 |issue=1 |pages=15–33 |date=January 2022 |pmid=34812901 |doi=10.1007/s00213-021-06027-y |s2cid=244490236 |url=https://research.rug.nl/en/publications/psychedelics-for-the-treatment-of-depression-anxiety-and-existent}}</ref> and [[post-traumatic stress disorder]].<ref name="smith-et-al-2022"/><ref name="hoskins-et-al-2021">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hoskins MD, Sinnerton R, Nakamura A, Underwood JF, Slater A, Lewis C, Roberts NP, Bisson JI, Lee M, Clarke L |display-authors=6 |title=Pharmacological-assisted Psychotherapy for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=European Journal of Psychotraumatology |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=1853379 |date=January 2021 |pmid=33680344 |doi=10.1080/20008198.2020.1853379 |pmc=7874936}}</ref> The United States [[Food and Drug Administration]] has granted "[[breakthrough therapy]]" status, which expedites the potential approval of promising drug therapies,{{refn|The Food and Drug Administration describes the designation of breakthrough therapy as "a process designed to expedite the development and review of drugs that are intended to treat a serious condition and preliminary clinical evidence indicates that the drug may demonstrate substantial improvement over available therapy on a clinically significant endpoint(s)."<ref name="fda-breakthrough">{{cite web |title=Breakthrough Therapy |publisher=United States Food and Drug Administration |date=1 April 2018 |url=https://www.fda.gov/patients/fast-track-breakthrough-therapy-accelerated-approval-priority-review/breakthrough-therapy |access-date=27 March 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301164346/https://www.fda.gov/patients/fast-track-breakthrough-therapy-accelerated-approval-priority-review/breakthrough-therapy |archive-date=1 March 2022}}</ref>|group=note}} to psychedelic therapies using psilocybin (for treatment-resistant depression and major depressive disorder)<ref name="marks-and-cohen-2021"/> and MDMA (for post-traumatic stress disorder).<ref name="vermetten-yehuda-2020">{{cite journal |vauthors=Vermetten E, Yehuda R |title=MDMA-assisted psychotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder: A promising novel approach to treatment |journal=Neuropsychopharmacology |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=231–232 |date=January 2020 |pmid=31455855 |doi=10.1038/s41386-019-0482-9 |pmc=6879520}}</ref>

==History==

===Prehistoric use of psychedelic substances===
Humans have long consumed psychedelic substances derived from cacti, seeds, bark, and roots of various plants and fungi.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Guerra-Doce E |date=2 January 2015 |title=Psychoactive Substances in Prehistoric Times: Examining the Archaeological Evidence |journal=Time and Mind |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=91–112 |name-list-style=vanc |doi=10.1080/1751696X.2014.993244 |s2cid=161528331}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=9 Mind-Altering Plants |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/list/9-mind-altering-plants |access-date=2018-10-23}}</ref> Since ancient times, [[shamanism|shamans]] and [[medicine man|medicine men]] have used psychedelics as a way to gain access to the spirit world. Though western culture usually views the practice of shamans and medicine men as predominantly [[spirituality|spiritual]] in nature, elements of psychotherapeutic practice can be read into the entheogenic or shamanic [[ritual]]s of many [[culture]]s.<ref>{{cite book |title=Psychedelic medicine: new evidence for hallucinogenic substances as treatments |vauthors=Winkelman M |publisher=Praeger Publishers |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-275-99023-7 |veditors=Winkelman M, Roberts TB |location=Westport, CT |chapter=Shamanic Guidelines for Psychedelic Medicine |chapter-url-access=registration |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/psychedelicmedic0000unse}}</ref>

===Research in the mid-20th century===
{{Psychedelic sidebar}}
Shortly after [[Albert Hofmann]] discovered the psychoactive properties of LSD in 1943,<ref>{{cite web |title=LSD Discovery-Albert Hofmann + Hofmann at 99 years |website=Skeptically.org |url=http://www.skeptically.org/recres/id8.html |access-date=2018-10-23 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090108051936/http://skeptically.org/recres/id8.html |archive-date=January 8, 2009}}</ref> [[Sandoz Laboratories]] began widespread distribution of LSD to researchers in 1949.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Novak SJ |title=LSD before Leary. Sidney Cohen's critique of 1950s psychedelic drug research |journal=Isis; an International Review Devoted to the History of Science and Its Cultural Influences |volume=88 |issue=1 |pages=87–110 |date=March 1997 |pmid=9154737 |doi=10.1086/383628 |s2cid=25764062}}</ref> Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, scientists in several countries conducted extensive research into experimental [[chemotherapeutic]] and [[psychotherapy|psychotherapeutic]] uses of psychedelic drugs. In addition to spawning six international conferences and the release of dozens of books, over 1,000 [[peer review|peer-reviewed]] clinical papers detailing the use of psychedelic compounds (administered to approximately 40,000 patients) were published by the mid-1960s.<ref name="GrinBak2">{{cite book |title=Psychedelic Drugs Reconsidered |vauthors=Grinspoon L, Bakalar JB |isbn=978-0-9641568-5-2 |series=A Drug Policy Classic Reprint from the Lindesmith Center, 1997 |chapter=The Psychedelic Drug Therapies |chapter-url=http://www.psymon.com/psychedelia/articles/grin-bak.htm |year=1997 |url=https://archive.org/details/psychedelicdrugs0000grin |url-access=registration}}</ref> Proponents believed that psychedelic drugs facilitated psychoanalytic processes, making them particularly useful for patients with conditions such as [[alcoholism]] that are otherwise difficult to treat. However, many of these trials did not meet the methodological standards that are required today.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Dyck E |title=Flashback: psychiatric experimentation with LSD in historical perspective |journal=Canadian Journal of Psychiatry |volume=50 |issue=7 |pages=381–388 |date=June 2005 |pmid=16086535 |doi=10.1177/070674370505000703 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Researchers like [[Timothy Leary]] felt psychedelics could alter the fundamental personality structure or subjective value-system of an individual to great potential benefit. Beginning in 1961, he conducted experiments with prison inmates in an attempt to reduce recidivism with short, intense psychotherapy sessions. Participants were administered psilocybin during these sessions weeks apart with regular group therapy sessions in between.<ref name="Leary_19652">{{cite journal |vauthors=Leary T, Metzner R, Presnell M, Weil G, Schwitzgebel R, Kinne S |year=1965 |title=A new behavior change program using psilocybin |journal=Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=61–72 |doi=10.1037/h0088612}}</ref> Psychedelic therapy was also applied in a number of other specific patient populations including individuals with [[alcoholism]], children with [[autism]], and persons with [[terminal illness]].<ref name="Leary_19652"/>

===Regulation and prohibition in the late 20th century===
Throughout the 1960s, concerns raised about the proliferation of unauthorized use of psychedelic drugs by the general public (and, most notably, the [[counterculture]]) resulted in the imposition of increasingly severe restrictions on medical and psychiatric research conducted with psychedelic substances.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Bonson KR |title=Regulation of human research with LSD in the United States (1949-1987) |journal=Psychopharmacology |volume=235 |issue=2 |pages=591–604 |date=February 2018 |pmid=29147729 |doi=10.1007/s00213-017-4777-4 |s2cid=3368639}}</ref> Many countries either banned LSD outright or made it extremely scarce, and, bowing to governmental concerns, [[Novartis|Sandoz]] halted production of LSD in 1965. During a congressional hearing in 1966, Senator [[Robert F. Kennedy]] questioned the shift of opinion, stating, "Perhaps to some extent we have lost sight of the fact that (LSD) can be very, very helpful in our society if used properly."<ref>{{cite book |title=Organization and Coordination of Federal Drug Research and Regulatory Programs: LSD [electronic resource]: Hearings before the United States Senate Committee on Government Operations, Subcommittee on Executive Reorganization, Eighty-Ninth Congress, second session |date=22 May 1966 |publisher=U.S. Government Publication Office |page=63 |url=https://searchworks.stanford.edu/view/11030542}}</ref> In 1968, Dahlberg and colleagues published an article in the ''American Journal of Psychiatry'' detailing various forces that had successfully discredited legitimate LSD research.<ref name="Dahlberg_1968">{{cite journal |vauthors=Dahlberg CC, Mechaneck R, Feldstein S |title=LSD research: the impact of lay publicity |journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry |volume=125 |issue=5 |pages=685–689 |date=November 1968 |pmid=5683460 |doi=10.1176/ajp.125.5.685}}</ref> The essay argues that individuals in government and the pharmaceutical industry sabotaged the psychedelic research community by canceling ongoing studies and analysis while labeling genuine scientists as charlatans.<ref name="Dahlberg_1968"/>

Studies on medicinal applications of psychedelics ceased entirely in the United States when the [[Controlled Substances Act]] was passed in 1970. LSD and many other psychedelics were placed into the most restrictive "Schedule I" category by the [[United States Drug Enforcement Administration]]. Schedule I compounds are claimed to possess "a high potential for [[drug abuse|abuse]] and the potential to create severe psychological and/or physical [[drug dependence|dependence]]" and have "no currently accepted medical use",<ref>{{cite web |title=Drug Scheduling |website=dea.gov |url=https://www.dea.gov/drug-information/drug-scheduling |access-date=2024-09-30}}</ref> effectively rendering them illegal to use in the United States for all purposes. Despite objections from the scientific community, authorized research into therapeutic applications of psychedelic drugs had been discontinued worldwide by the 1980s.

Despite broad prohibition, unofficial psychedelic research and therapeutic sessions continued nevertheless in the following decades. Some therapists exploited windows of opportunity preceding scheduling of particular psychedelic drugs. Informal psychedelic therapy was conducted clandestinely in underground networks consisting of sessions carried out both by licensed therapists and autodidacts within the community.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Passie T |date=2018-04-11 |title=The early use of MDMA ('Ecstasy') in psychotherapy (1977–1985) |journal=[[Drug Science, Policy and Law]] |volume=4 |pages=205032451876744 |issn=2050-3245 |doi=10.1177/2050324518767442 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Due to the largely illegal nature of psychedelic therapy in this period, little information is available concerning the methods that were used. Individuals having published information between 1980 and 2000 regarding psychedelic psychotherapy include George Greer, [[Ann Shulgin|Ann]] and [[Alexander Shulgin]] (''[[PiHKAL]]'' and ''[[TiHKAL]]''), [[Myron Stolaroff]] (''The Secret Chief'', regarding the underground therapy done by [[Leo Zeff]]), and [[Athanasios Kafkalides]].<ref>{{cite book |title=The Secret Chief: Conversations with a pioneer of the underground psychedelic therapy movement |vauthors=Stolaroff M |publisher=Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-9660019-1-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/secretchief00myro |url-access=registration}}</ref>

===Resurgence in the early 21st century===<!-- [[#Psychedelic therapy]] links here -->
[[File:Johns Hopkins psilocybin session room-SessionRm 2176x.jpg|thumb|283x283px|Psilocybin session at Johns Hopkins]]
In the early 2000s, a renewal of interest in the [[psychiatry|psychiatric]] use of [[psychedelic drug|psychedelics]] contributed to an increase in clinical research centering on the [[psychopharmacology|psychopharmacological]] effects of these drugs and their subsequent applications. Advances in science and technology allowed researchers to collect and interpret extensive data from animal studies, and the advent of new technologies such as [[positron emission tomography|PET]] and [[magnetic resonance imaging|MRI]] scanning made it possible to examine the sites of action of hallucinogens in the brain.<ref name="MAPS">{{cite news |title=Human Psychedelic Research: A Historical And Sociological Analysis |publisher=[[Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies|MAPS]] |url=https://maps.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=5468#renewal |access-date=2018-10-23}}</ref> Furthermore, retrospective studies involving users of illicit drugs as voluntary subjects were conducted, allowing data to be collected on how psychedelics affect the human brain while simultaneously sidestepping bureaucratic difficulties associated with providing illegal substances to subjects.<ref name="MAPS"/> The new century also ushered in a broader change in political attitude towards psychedelic medicine—specifically within the [[Food and Drug Administration]]. [[Curtis Wright IV|Curtis Wright]], then deputy director of the FDA Division of Anesthetic, Critical Care and Addiction Drugs explained a motivation for this change: "the agency was challenged legally in a number of cases and also underwent a process of introspection, asking 'Is it proper to treat this class of drugs differently?'"<ref name="MAPS"/>

As of 2014, global treaties listing LSD and psilocybin as "Schedule I" controlled substances continues to inhibit a better understanding of these drugs. Much of the renewed clinical research has been conducted with [[psilocybin]] and [[MDMA]] in the United States with special permission and [[breakthrough therapy]] designations by the [[Food and Drug Administration|FDA]], while other studies have investigated the mechanisms and effects of [[ayahuasca]] and [[lysergic acid diethylamide|LSD]].<ref name="auto22">{{cite journal |vauthors=Tupper KW, Wood E, Yensen R, Johnson MW |title=Psychedelic medicine: a re-emerging therapeutic paradigm |journal=CMAJ |volume=187 |issue=14 |pages=1054–1059 |date=October 2015 |pmid=26350908 |doi=10.1503/cmaj.141124 |pmc=4592297}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Amoroso T |title=The Psychopharmacology of ±3,4 Methylenedioxymethamphetamine and its Role in the Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder |journal=Journal of Psychoactive Drugs |volume=47 |issue=5 |pages=337–344 |date=2015 |pmid=26579955 |doi=10.1080/02791072.2015.1094156 |s2cid=37980113}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |vauthors=Saplakoglu Y |date=2019-11-25 |title=FDA Calls Psychedelic Psilocybin a 'Breakthrough Therapy' for Severe Depression |website=livescience.com |language=en |url=https://www.livescience.com/psilocybin-depression-breakthrough-therapy.html |access-date=2020-09-11}}</ref> MDMA-assisted psychotherapy is being actively researched by [[Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies|MAPS]].

As of 2023, many new centers for psychedelics research have been launched, including the Centre for Psychedelic Research at [[Imperial College London]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Centre for Psychedelic Research |website=Imperial College London |language=en-GB |url=http://www.imperial.ac.uk/a-z-research/psychedelic-research-centre/ |access-date=2021-08-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2018-12-26 |title=Centre for Psychedelic Research |website=Psychedelic Science Review |language=en-US |url=https://psychedelicreview.com/organization/psychedelic-research-group-imperial-college-london/ |access-date=2021-08-11}}</ref> the UC Berkeley Center for the Science of Psychedelics,<ref>{{cite web |vauthors=Anwar Y |date=2020-09-14 |title=UC Berkeley launches new center for psychedelic science and education |website=Berkeley News |language=en-US |url=https://news.berkeley.edu/2020/09/14/uc-berkeley-launches-new-center-for-psychedelic-science-and-education/ |access-date=2021-08-11}}</ref> the Center for Psychedelic and Consciousness Research at [[Johns Hopkins University]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Center for Psychedelic & Consciousness Research |website=Center for Psychedelic & Consciousness Research |language=en-US |url=https://hopkinspsychedelic.org/ |access-date=2021-08-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |vauthors=Lewis T |date=2020-01-16 |title=Johns Hopkins Scientists Give Psychedelics the Serious Treatment |website=Scientific American |language=en |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/johns-hopkins-scientists-give-psychedelics-the-serious-treatment/ |access-date=2021-08-11}}</ref> the Center for Psychedelic Research and Therapy at [[Dell Medical School]] at the University of Texas at [[Austin, Texas|Austin]],<ref>{{cite web |date=2021-12-16 |title=Center to Study Psychedelics for Treatment of Depression, Anxiety |website=Dell Medical School |language=en-us |url=https://dellmed.utexas.edu/news/dell-med-launches-center-to-study-psychedelics-for-treatment-of-depression-anxiety-ptsd |access-date=2022-01-15}}</ref> the Center for Psychedelic Psychotherapy and Trauma Research at the [[Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Mount Sinai Health System Launches Center for Psychedelic Research |website=Mount Sinai Health System |language=en-US |url=https://www.mountsinai.org/about/newsroom/2021/mount-sinai-health-system-launches-center-for-psychedelic-research |access-date=2021-08-11}}</ref> the Psychae Institute in [[Melbourne]],<ref>{{cite web |vauthors=Booker C |date=2021-07-29 |title=$40m psychedelic medicine institute launches in Melbourne |website=The Sydney Morning Herald |language=en |url=https://www.smh.com.au/national/40m-psychedelic-medicine-institute-launches-in-melbourne-20210728-p58dlo.html |access-date=2021-08-11}}</ref> and the Naut sa mawt Center for Psychedelic Research at [[Vancouver Island University]].<ref>{{cite web |date=2023-03-02 |title=VIU launches collaborative psychedelic research centre |website=news.viu.ca |publisher=Vancouver Island University |language=en |url=https://news.viu.ca/viu-launches-collaborative-psychedelic-research-centre |access-date=2023-12-04}}</ref> Harvard will create a Study of Psychedelics in Society and Culture.<ref>{{cite web |date=2023-10-16 |title=Harvard launches new Study of Psychedelics in Society and Culture |website=Harvard Gazette |language=en-US |url=https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/newsplus/harvard-launches-new-study-of-psychedelics-in-society-and-culture/ |access-date=2023-12-04}}</ref>

A survey published in 2023<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barnett |first1=Brian S. |last2=Arakelian |first2=Miranda |last3=Beebe |first3=David |last4=Ontko |first4=Jared |last5=Riegal |first5=Connor |last6=Siu |first6=Willie O. |last7=Weleff |first7=Jeremy |last8=Pope |first8=Harrison G. |date=2023-09-19 |title=American Psychiatrists' Opinions About Classic Hallucinogens and Their Potential Therapeutic Applications: A 7-Year Follow-Up Survey |journal=Psychedelic Medicine |volume=2 |pages=1–9 |issn=2831-4425 |doi=10.1089/psymed.2023.0036 |url=https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/abs/10.1089/psymed.2023.0036}}</ref> found strong support for psychedelic therapy among psychiatrists in the United States, revealing a significant positive shift in attitudes toward this treatment modality in comparison to a previous survey published in 2018.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barnett |first1=Brian S. |last2=Siu |first2=Willie O. |last3=Pope |first3=Harrison G. |date=June 2018 |title=A Survey of American Psychiatrists' Attitudes Toward Classic Hallucinogens |journal=The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease |volume=206 |issue=6 |pages=476–480 |issn=1539-736X |pmid=29781894 |doi=10.1097/NMD.0000000000000828 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29781894/}}</ref> More than half of psychiatrists in the 2023 study expressed intentions to incorporate psychedelic therapy into their practice if regulatory approval is granted. In [[Australia]], authorised psychiatrists can prescribe psilocybin for treatment-resistant depression, and MDMA for post-traumatic stress disorder.<ref>{{cite news |last=Shepherd |first=Tory |date=2023-02-03 |title=Australia to allow prescription of MDMA and psilocybin for treatment-resistant mental illnesses |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |issn=0261-3077 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2023/feb/03/australia-to-allow-prescription-of-mdma-and-psilocybin-for-treatment-resistant-mental-illnesses |access-date=2023-10-26}}</ref>

In 2024, an FDA advisory panel voted against approving MDMA-assisted therapy for PTSD, "raising questions about the credibility of the research being conducted and the safety of those involved in the trials". The FDA advisors voted 9-2 that the available data didn’t show MDMA was effective in treating PTSD, and 10-1 that the benefits of MDMA-assisted therapy did not outweigh the risks.<ref name="Sinclair">{{Cite web |last=Sinclair |first=Sarah |title=Why FDA Panel Rejected MDMA Therapy—And What's Next For Psychedelic Medicine |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/sarahsinclair/2024/06/13/why-fda-panel-rejected-mdma-therapy-and-whats-next-for-psychedelic-medicine/ |access-date=2024-10-14 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref>

==Applications==
Psychedelic substances which may have therapeutic uses include [[psilocybin]] (the main active compound found in "magic" mushrooms), [[mescaline]] (the main active compound in the peyote cactus), and [[LSD]].<ref name="auto22"/> Although the history behind these substances has hindered research into their potential medicinal value, scientists are now able to conduct studies and renew research that was halted in the 1970s. Some research has shown that these substances have helped people with such mental disorders as [[obsessive-compulsive disorder]], [[post-traumatic stress disorder]], [[alcoholism]], [[major depressive disorder|depression]], and [[cluster headaches]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Garcia-Romeu A, Kersgaard B, Addy PH |title=Clinical applications of hallucinogens: A review |journal=Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=229–268 |date=August 2016 |pmid=27454674 |doi=10.1037/pha0000084 |pmc=5001686}}</ref> Some of the well known particular psychedelic substances that have been used to this day are: [[LSD]], [[dimethyltryptamine|DMT]], [[psilocybin]], [[mescaline]], [[2C-B]], [[2C-I]], [[5-MeO-DMT]], [[Alpha-Methyltryptamine|AMT]], [[ibogaine]], and [[2,5-Dimethoxy-4-methylamphetamine|DOM]]. In general, the mechanism of action of how these drugs have therapeutic effects is poorly understood. Their effects are strongly dependent on the environment in which they are given and on the recipient's state of mind ([[set and setting]]).<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Golden TL, Magsamen S, Sandu CC, Lin S, Roebuck GM, Shi KM, Barrett FS |title=Effects of Setting on Psychedelic Experiences, Therapies, and Outcomes: A Rapid Scoping Review of the Literature |journal=Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences |volume=56 |pages=35–70 |date=2022 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-031-12183-8 |veditors=Barrett FS, Preller KH |place=Cham |pmid=35138585 |doi=10.1007/7854_2021_298 |s2cid=246679011}}</ref>

===In substance use disorders===
Studies by [[Humphry Osmond]], [[Betty Eisner]], and others examined the possibility that psychedelic therapy could treat [[alcoholism]] (or, less commonly, other addictions). [[Bill W.|Bill Wilson]], the founder of Alcoholics Anonymous, used [[LSD]] during supervised experiments with Betty Eisner, [[Gerald Heard]], and [[Aldous Huxley]]. He ingested LSD for the first time on August 29, 1956. With Wilson's invitation, his wife Lois, his spiritual adviser Father [[Edward Dowling (priest)|Ed Dowling]], and Nell Wing also participated in experimentation of this drug. Later Wilson wrote to [[Carl Jung]], praising the results and recommending it as validation of Jung's spiritual experience.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hartigan |first=Francis |title=Bill Wilson |publisher=St. Martin's Griffin |year=2001 |isbn=9780312283919 |pages=205–208}}</ref> According to Wilson, the session allowed him to re-experience a spontaneous spiritual experience he had had years before, which had enabled him to overcome his own alcoholism.

A 1998 review of the effectiveness of psychedelic therapy for treating alcoholism concluded that due to methodological difficulties in the research prior to that time, it was not possible to state whether it was effective.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Mangini M |title=Treatment of alcoholism using psychedelic drugs: a review of the program of research |journal=Journal of Psychoactive Drugs |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=381–418 |year=1998 |pmid=9924844 |doi=10.1080/02791072.1998.10399714}}</ref> A 2012 [[meta-analysis]] found that "In a pooled analysis of six randomized controlled clinical trials, a single dose of LSD had a significant beneficial effect on alcohol misuse at the first reported follow-up assessment, which ranged from 1 to 12 months after discharge from each treatment program. This treatment effect from LSD on alcohol misuse was also seen at 2 to 3 months and at 6 months, but was not statistically significant at 12 months post-treatment. Among the three trials that reported total abstinence from alcohol use, there was also a significant beneficial effect of LSD at the first reported follow-up, which ranged from 1 to 3 months after discharge from each treatment program."<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Krebs TS, Johansen PØ |title=Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) for alcoholism: meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials |journal=Journal of Psychopharmacology |volume=26 |issue=7 |pages=994–1002 |date=July 2012 |pmid=22406913 |doi=10.1177/0269881112439253 |s2cid=10677273}}</ref>

In 2022 a systematic review was published on the efficacy of ibogaine/noribogaine, an indole alkaloid with “anti-addictive” properties, to treat substance use disorders looking at studies up to December 2020.<ref name="Köck-2022">{{cite journal |vauthors=Köck P, Froelich K, Walter M, Lang U, Dürsteler KM |title=A systematic literature review of clinical trials and therapeutic applications of ibogaine |journal=Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment |volume=138 |pages=108717 |date=July 2022 |pmid=35012793 |doi=10.1016/j.jsat.2021.108717 |doi-access=free |s2cid=245597268}}</ref> Oral ingestion of ibogaine leads to an intense psychedelic experience with effects lasting up to 72 hours that lead participants to insights that may change the way they view life and their ways of thinking; however, the mechanism of how this drug works to reduce substance use is not yet understood.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Heink A, Katsikas S, Lange-Altman T |title=Examination of the Phenomenology of the Ibogaine Treatment Experience: Role of Altered States of Consciousness and Psychedelic Experiences |journal=Journal of Psychoactive Drugs |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=201–208 |date=2017-05-27 |pmid=28266890 |doi=10.1080/02791072.2017.1290855 |s2cid=25328910}}</ref> Evidence suggests that ibogaine does have some reduction on opioid and cocaine misuse, but more well designed, larger randomly controlled trials are required to fully understand the therapeutic benefits.<ref name="Köck-2022"/> Significant adverse reactions were experienced by participants including cardiotoxicity, QT prolongation, ataxia, psychosis, and several fatalities were reported due to toxic adverse events.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=dos Santos RG, Bouso JC, Hallak JE |date=April 2017 |title=The antiaddictive effects of ibogaine: A systematic literature review of human studies |journal=Journal of Psychedelic Studies |language=en |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=20–28 |issn=2559-9283 |doi=10.1556/2054.01.2016.001 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Analysis of the fatalities concluded that patients with cardiac comorbidities and that those that are taking concurrent medications are at higher risk of a medical emergency.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Litjens RP, Brunt TM |title=How toxic is ibogaine? |journal=Clinical Toxicology |volume=54 |issue=4 |pages=297–302 |date=2016-04-20 |pmid=26807959 |doi=10.3109/15563650.2016.1138226 |s2cid=7026570}}</ref>

A systematic review completed in 2023, containing studies from the past decade, looked at the ability of psychedelic therapy in combination with psychotherapy to help reduce substance use, cravings, and abstinence of addictions including alcohol, cocaine, opioids, and nicotine. Studies commonly reported reductions in substance misuse, however, the quality of evidence is too low to draw solid conclusions on the efficacy of psychedelic treatments for [[substance use disorder]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Sharma R, Batchelor R, Sin J |title=Psychedelic Treatments for Substance Use Disorder and Substance Misuse: A Mixed Methods Systematic Review |journal=Journal of Psychoactive Drugs |pages=612–630 |date=March 2023 |volume=55 |issue=5 |pmid=36933948 |doi=10.1080/02791072.2023.2190319 |doi-access=free |s2cid=257623319}}</ref>

However, a systematic review of human and animal studies showed that a single dose of LSD for treatment of AUD led to greater odds of improvement in alcohol consumption than control participants.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Calleja-Conde |first1=Javier |last2=Morales-García |first2=Jose Angel |last3=Echeverry-Alzate |first3=Víctor |last4=Bühler |first4=Kora Mareen |last5=Giné |first5=Elena |last6=López-Moreno |first6=Jose Antonio |date=November 2022 |title=Classic psychedelics and alcohol use disorders: A systematic review of human and animal studies |journal=Addiction Biology |language=en |volume=27 |issue=6 |pages=e13229 |issn=1355-6215 |pmid=36301215 |doi=10.1111/adb.13229 |pmc=9541961}}</ref>

===In terminal illness===
During the early 1950s and 1960s the National Institute of Mental Health sponsored the study of psychedelic drugs such as psilocybin and LSD to alleviate the debilitating anxiety and depression patients with terminal diagnoses may feel.<ref name="Byock-2018">{{cite journal |vauthors=Byock I |title=Taking Psychedelics Seriously |journal=Journal of Palliative Medicine |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=417–421 |date=April 2018 |pmid=29356590 |doi=10.1089/jpm.2017.0684 |pmc=5867510}}</ref> While these early studies are hard to find, the resurgence of interest in psychedelic drugs to treat humans end of life mindset has led to some small studies in the 21st century. The more recently published research strengthens the findings from the 1950s and 1960s showing the drug is extremely effective in reducing anxiety and depression in this patient population once carefully screened and has few adverse effects when administered in a psychotherapy setting and under medical supervision. The psychologists leading psychedelic drug therapy trials found that end of life patients often experience the emotional turmoil of dying more than the physical aspects. This mindset makes it difficult for patients to find meaning and enjoyment in life during their last few months or years.<ref name="Boston-2011"/> While all patients have completely different experiences on these mind altering drugs the research subjects interviewed all expressed they had, "heightened clarity and confidence about their personal values and priorities, and a renewed or enhanced recognition of intrinsic meaning and value of life."<ref name="Byock-2018"/> More recently, researchers have argued that psychedelic therapy is beneficial for these patients because it may specifically reduce their [[death anxiety|fear of dying]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Moreton SG, Szalla L, Menzies RE, Arena AF |title=Embedding existential psychology within psychedelic science: reduced death anxiety as a mediator of the therapeutic effects of psychedelics |journal=Psychopharmacology |volume=237 |issue=1 |pages=21–32 |date=January 2020 |pmid=31784805 |doi=10.1007/s00213-019-05391-0 |s2cid=208337549}}</ref>

As of 2016, Johns Hopkins University and New York University have conducted large randomized, placebo-controlled studies.<ref name="Nichols_2016">{{cite journal |vauthors=Nichols DE, Johnson MW, Nichols CD |title=Psychedelics as Medicines: An Emerging New Paradigm |journal=Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics |volume=101 |issue=2 |pages=209–219 |date=February 2017 |pmid=28019026 |doi=10.1002/cpt.557 |s2cid=25861735}}</ref> These two studies are some of the first large controlled studies measuring the effects of psychedelic therapy on depression and anxiety in cancer patients.<ref name="Nichols_2016"/> Across clinician-ratings and self-ratings, the psychedelic treatment produced statistically significant lowered anxiety and depression, with sustenance for at least 6 months.<ref name="Griffiths_2016">{{cite journal |vauthors=Griffiths RR, Johnson MW, Carducci MA, Umbricht A, Richards WA, Richards BD, Cosimano MP, Klinedinst MA |display-authors=6 |title=Psilocybin produces substantial and sustained decreases in depression and anxiety in patients with life-threatening cancer: A randomized double-blind trial |journal=Journal of Psychopharmacology |volume=30 |issue=12 |pages=1181–1197 |date=December 2016 |pmid=27909165 |doi=10.1177/0269881116675513 |pmc=5367557}}</ref><ref name="Ross_2016">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ross S, Bossis A, Guss J, Agin-Liebes G, Malone T, Cohen B, Mennenga SE, Belser A, Kalliontzi K, Babb J, Su Z, Corby P, Schmidt BL |display-authors=6 |title=Rapid and sustained symptom reduction following psilocybin treatment for anxiety and depression in patients with life-threatening cancer: a randomized controlled trial |journal=Journal of Psychopharmacology |volume=30 |issue=12 |pages=1165–1180 |date=December 2016 |pmid=27909164 |doi=10.1177/0269881116675512 |pmc=5367551}}</ref> The studies monitored for adverse effects from the drugs but no serious adverse effects were observed.<ref name="Griffiths_2016"/><ref name="Ross_2016"/> Both studies also attributed the efficacy in part to patients experiencing a "mystical experience".<ref name="Griffiths_2016"/><ref name="Ross_2016"/> A mystical experience is a very personal introspective experience where some sort of unity or transcendence of time and space is described.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Barrett FS, Johnson MW, Griffiths RR |title=Validation of the revised Mystical Experience Questionnaire in experimental sessions with psilocybin |journal=Journal of Psychopharmacology |volume=29 |issue=11 |pages=1182–1190 |date=November 2015 |pmid=26442957 |doi=10.1177/0269881115609019 |pmc=5203697}}</ref> More research is necessary to expand generalizability of the conclusions. Also, more research is necessary to understand the biological properties of a mystical experience.<ref name="Ross_2016"/><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Bauereiß N, Obermaier S, Özünal SE, Baumeister H |title=Effects of existential interventions on spiritual, psychological, and physical well-being in adult patients with cancer: Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials |journal=Psycho-Oncology |volume=27 |issue=11 |pages=2531–2545 |date=November 2018 |pmid=29958339 |doi=10.1002/pon.4829 |doi-access=free |s2cid=49613924}}</ref>

Evidence is growing for the use of atypical psychedelics such as ketamine for treating depression in terminally ill patients, with repeated IV administration having the most therapeutic effect.<ref name="Boston-2011">{{cite journal |vauthors=Boston P, Bruce A, Schreiber R |title=Existential suffering in the palliative care setting: an integrated literature review |journal=Journal of Pain and Symptom Management |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=604–618 |date=March 2011 |pmid=21145202 |doi=10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2010.05.010 |doi-access=free}}</ref> These studies did not have any patients experience any serious adverse effects; however, ketamine-induced ulcerative cystitis is a concern for repeated long-term administration.<ref name="Boston-2011"/> Qualitative studies are required to better understand the mechanism and thought process changes that lead to therapeutic outcomes.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Breeksema JJ, Niemeijer AR, Krediet E, Vermetten E, Schoevers RA |title=Psychedelic Treatments for Psychiatric Disorders: A Systematic Review and Thematic Synthesis of Patient Experiences in Qualitative Studies |journal=CNS Drugs |volume=34 |issue=9 |pages=925–946 |date=September 2020 |pmid=32803732 |doi=10.1007/s40263-020-00748-y |pmc=7447679}}</ref>

===In post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)===
{{Further|Psychedelic treatments for trauma-related disorders}}
{{See also|Cannabis use and trauma}}

The [[Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies]] (MAPS) is conducting studies in the psychedelic treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. The [[Phases of clinical research|Phase 2]] trials of these studies, conducted in the U.S., Canada, and Israel, consisted of 107 participants who had chronic, treatment-resistant PTSD, and had had PTSD for an average of 17.8 years. Out of the 107 participants, 61% no longer qualified for PTSD after three sessions of MDMA-assisted psychotherapy two months after the treatment. At the 12-month follow-up session, 68% no longer had PTSD.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Phase 3 Program of MDMA-Assisted Therapy for the Treatment of Severe Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) |website=MAPS |url=https://maps.org/research/mdma/ptsd/phase3 |access-date=8 April 2021}}</ref> Phase 2 trials conducted between 2004 and 2010 reported an overall remission rate of 66.2% and low rates of adverse effects for subjects with chronic PTSD.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Thal SB, Lommen MJ |title=Current Perspective on MDMA-Assisted Psychotherapy for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder |journal=Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=99–108 |date=2018 |pmid=29720767 |doi=10.1007/s10879-017-9379-2 |pmc=5917000}}</ref> In 2017, MAPS and the FDA reached an agreement on the special protocol for phase 3 trials.<ref name="maps.org">{{cite web |title=Phase 3 Trial Program: MDMA-Assisted Therapy for PTSD |website=Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies - MAPS |language=en-US |url=https://maps.org/mdma/ptsd/phase3/ |access-date=2022-05-24}}</ref>

Evidence shows that MDMA-assisted psychotherapy versus control shows clinically significant improvement in [[Clinician Administered PTSD Scale|Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale]] (CAPS) scores from baseline, with most of the patients no longer meeting the CAPS score for PTSD.<ref name="smith-et-al-2022"/> Effects of MDMA-assisted psychotherapy can be observed up to 12 months after receiving 2-3 active sessions of moderate to high dose MDMA (75–125&nbsp;mg).<ref name="smith-et-al-2022"/>
 
It is important to note that given the difficulties with appropriate blinding in trials of MDMA- and psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy the results are likely overestimated.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Muthukumaraswamy SD, Forsyth A, Lumley T |title=Blinding and expectancy confounds in psychedelic randomized controlled trials |journal=Expert Review of Clinical Pharmacology |volume=14 |issue=9 |pages=1133–1152 |date=September 2021 |pmid=34038314 |doi=10.1080/17512433.2021.1933434 |s2cid=235215630}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Burke MJ, Blumberger DM |title=Caution at psychiatry's psychedelic frontier |journal=Nature Medicine |volume=27 |issue=10 |pages=1687–1688 |date=October 2021 |pmid=34635858 |doi=10.1038/s41591-021-01524-1 |s2cid=238635462}}</ref> Furthermore, there are no superiority or non-inferiority clinical trials comparing MDMA-assisted psychotherapy to already existent evidence-based treatments for PTSD, but given the effects reported in clinical trials of MDMA-assisted psychotherapy for PTSD there is no reason to believe that this treatment modality is more effective than existent trauma-focused psychological treatments.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Halvorsen JØ, Naudet F, Cristea IA |title=Challenges with benchmarking of MDMA-assisted psychotherapy |journal=Nature Medicine |volume=27 |issue=10 |pages=1689–1690 |date=October 2021 |pmid=34635857 |doi=10.1038/s41591-021-01525-0 |s2cid=238636360 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-03414583/file/Halvorsen%20et%20al%20-%202021%20-%20Challenges%20with%20benchmarking%20of%20MDMA-assisted%20psychotherapy.pdf}}</ref>

In 2024, an FDA advisory panel voted against approving MDMA-assisted therapy for PTSD, "raising questions about the credibility of the research being conducted and the safety of those involved in the trials". The FDA advisors voted 9-2 that the available data didn’t show MDMA was effective in treating PTSD, and 10-1 that the benefits of MDMA-assisted therapy did not outweigh the risks.<ref name="Sinclair"/>

===In depressive and anxiety disorders===
In 2019, the FDA approved the use of [[esketamine]] for intranasal use for major depressive disorder (MDD) and treatment-resistant depression (TRD), in conjunction with an oral antidepressant.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Bahr R, Lopez A, Rey JA |title=Intranasal Esketamine (Spravato) for Use in Treatment-Resistant Depression In Conjunction With an Oral Antidepressant |journal=P & T |volume=44 |issue=6 |pages=340–375 |date=June 2019 |pmid=31160868 |pmc=6534172}}</ref>

Also in 2019, the FDA granted "[[breakthrough therapy]]" status to psilocybin for treatment-resistant depression and major depressive disorder in order to hasten the process for potential regulatory approval.<ref>{{cite news |title=FDA Calls Psychedelic Psilocybin a 'Breakthrough Therapy' for Severe Depression |newspaper=Livescience.com |date=25 November 2019 |url=https://www.livescience.com/psilocybin-depression-breakthrough-therapy.html |access-date=9 April 2021}}</ref> The designation of "breakthrough therapy" fast-tracks the study of drugs where preliminary clinical evidence shows that they could be substantially more effective than therapies that are already available.<ref>{{cite web |title=Breakthrough Therapy |website=U.S. Food and Drug Administration |date=3 November 2018 |url=https://www.fda.gov/patients/fast-track-breakthrough-therapy-accelerated-approval-priority-review/breakthrough-therapy |access-date=10 April 2021}}</ref>

Studies on the clinical effects of ayahuasca have found significant antidepressant and anxiety-reducing effects, leading to calls for further research to overcome methodological limitations in the existing studies.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hamill J, Hallak J, Dursun SM, Baker G |title=Ayahuasca: Psychological and Physiologic Effects, Pharmacology and Potential Uses in Addiction and Mental Illness |journal=Current Neuropharmacology |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=108–128 |date=2019 |pmid=29366418 |doi=10.2174/1570159X16666180125095902 |doi-access=free |pmc=6343205}}</ref>

There is some evidence that psilocybin in combination with [[MDMA]] might help with psychiatric disorders, but only when administered in a controlled clinical setting.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Kisely S, Connor M, Somogyi AA, Siskind D |title=A systematic literature review and meta-analysis of the effect of psilocybin and methylenedioxymethamphetamine on mental, behavioural or developmental disorders |journal=Aust N Z J Psychiatry |volume=57 |issue=3 |pages=362–378 |date=March 2023 |pmid=35285280 |doi=10.1177/00048674221083868 |s2cid=247421768 |quote=In conclusion, MDMA and psilocybin show potential as therapeutic agents in highly selected populations when administered in closely supervised settings with intensive support. Evidence appears strongest for MDMA. By contrast, randomised findings for psilocybin are largely limited to short-term follow-up data prior to cross-over}}</ref>

There is limited evidence that reductions in suicidality scores can be observed immediately after administration of ayahuasca or psilocybin, observable up to 6 months after administration.<ref name="Zeifman-2022">{{cite journal |vauthors=Zeifman RJ, Yu D, Singhal N, Wang G, Nayak SM, Weissman CR |title=Decreases in Suicidality Following Psychedelic Therapy: A Meta-Analysis of Individual Patient Data Across Clinical Trials |journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry |volume=83 |issue=2 |date=January 2022 |pmid=35044730 |doi=10.4088/JCP.21r14057 |s2cid=245949616}}</ref>

===In reducing criminal behavior===
In 2017, researchers mainly from the [[University of Birmingham]] published research suggesting that psilocybin use is correlated with reduced criminal behavior. The researchers analyzed data from 480,000 U.S. adults collected by the National Survey on Drug Use and Health on their past use of psychedelics, including ayahuasca, dimethyltryptamine, LSD, mescaline, peyote, San Pedro, and psilocybin mushrooms. While other illicit drugs have been associated with increased criminal behavior, the researchers found that psychedelic substances were instead associated with reduced criminal behavior. Usage of these substances was associated with a 12% reduction in likelihood of assault, 18% reduction in likelihood of other violent crimes, 27% reduction in likelihood of committing larceny and theft, and 22% reduction in likelihood of committing other property crimes.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hendricks PS, Crawford MS, Cropsey KL, Copes H, Sweat NW, Walsh Z, Pavela G |title=The relationships of classic psychedelic use with criminal behavior in the United States adult population |journal=Journal of Psychopharmacology |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=37–48 |date=January 2018 |pmid=29039233 |doi=10.1177/0269881117735685 |s2cid=32430532}}</ref> These findings potentially support the use of psychedelic therapy in forensic and clinical settings.<ref>{{cite web |title=Study suggests psychedelic drugs could reduce criminal behavior |website=UAB News |language=en-US |url=https://www.uab.edu/news/research/item/8802-study-suggests-psychedelic-drugs-could-reduce-criminal-behavior |access-date=2023-04-04}}</ref>

In a prior 2014 study, researchers explored the relationship between recidivism and naturalistic hallucinogens in criminal justice populations with a history of substance use. The results concluded that hallucinogens promoted prosocial behaviors in a population which is typically associated with high recidivism rates. The usage of hallucinogens has been found to reduce supervision failure in ex-convicts. This inherently encourages drug abstinence, including the use of alcohol, resulting in lower rates of recidivism.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hendricks PS, Clark CB, Johnson MW, Fontaine KR, Cropsey KL |title=Hallucinogen use predicts reduced recidivism among substance-involved offenders under community corrections supervision |journal=Journal of Psychopharmacology |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=62–66 |date=January 2014 |pmid=24399338 |doi=10.1177/0269881113513851 |s2cid=22654131}}</ref>

A 2018 study found that men who had used psychedelic drugs in the past were less likely to commit violence against their current partners compared to those who had not used these substances. The study suggests that the use of psychedelic drugs in men might be associated with a reduced likelihood of committing [[domestic violence|violence against intimate partners]], potentially due to improved emotion regulation.<ref>{{cite news |last=Dolan |first=Eric W. |date=2018-06-08 |title=Men who have used psychedelics are roughly half as likely to commit intimate partner violence |newspaper=Psypost - Psychology News |language=en-US |url=https://www.psypost.org/2018/06/men-used-psychedelics-roughly-half-likely-commit-intimate-partner-violence-51393 |access-date=2023-10-10}}</ref>

A 2022 U.S. study found that use of classic psychedelics was associated with lowered odds of criminal arrest. The research suggests that 7 of the 11 arrest variables were reduced with lifetime psilocybin use. Peyote use was found to reduce the odds of [[driving under the influence]] and vehicle theft. Lastly, mescaline use was found to reduce drug possession/sale. No other substances shared a positive relationship with reducing criminal behavior.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Jones GM, Nock MK |title=Psilocybin use is associated with lowered odds of crime arrests in US adults: A replication and extension |journal=Journal of Psychopharmacology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=66–73 |date=January 2022 |pmid=35090364 |doi=10.1177/02698811211058933 |s2cid=246387248}}</ref>

==Contraindications==
Psychedelic therapy is [[contraindicated]] for people who:<ref>{{cite web |title=Medical Contraindications to "Classic" Psychedelic Use |website=psychedelics.ucsf.edu |language=en |url=https://psychedelics.ucsf.edu/blog/medical-contraindications-to-classic-psychedelic-use |access-date=2023-01-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Frecska E |date=2007 |chapter=Therapeutic guidelines: dangers and contra-indications in therapeutic applications of hallucinogens |chapter-url=http://rgdoi.net/10.13140/RG.2.1.2364.8888 |title=Psychedelic Medicine |language=en |doi=10.13140/RG.2.1.2364.8888}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |vauthors=Smith DG |newspaper=The New York Times |title=Psychedelics are a promising therapy, but they can be dangerous for some |date=11 February 2023 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/02/10/well/mind/psychedelics-therapy-ketamine-mushrooms-risks.html |access-date=12 February 2023}}</ref>
* are pregnant,
* have a history of epilepsy/other seizure disorder,
* have severe cardiovascular disease including uncontrolled blood pressure, heart failure, coronary artery disease, or previous heart attack or stroke,
* use medications like SSRI or MAO-I antidepressants,
* have a personal or family history of primary psychotic or affective disorders like Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective disorder, Bipolar 1 disorder, or psychotic symptoms in the setting of depression.

==Methods==
===Standard psychedelic therapy===
The main approach used in the contemporary resurgence of research, often simply called ''psychedelic therapy'', involves the use of moderate-to-high doses of psychedelic drugs.<ref name="garcia-romeu-richards-2018"/> The psychedelic therapy method was initiated by [[Humphry Osmond]] and [[Abram Hoffer]] (with some influence from [[Alfred Matthew Hubbard|Al Hubbard]]) and replicated by Keith Ditman,<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Eisner B |title=Set, setting, and matrix |journal=Journal of Psychoactive Drugs |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=213–216 |year=1997 |pmid=9250949 |doi=10.1080/02791072.1997.10400190}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=How to Change Your Mind |vauthors=Michael P |date=15 May 2018 |authorlink=Michael Pollan |isbn=9780525558941 |page=164 |publisher=Penguin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3vk5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA164 |quote=But though this mode of therapy would become closely identified with Osmond and Hoffer, they themselves credited someone else for critical elements of its design, a man of considerable mystery with no formal training as a scientist or therapist: Al Hubbard. A treatment space decorated to feel more like a home than a hospital came to be known as a Hubbard Room, and at least one early psychedelic researcher told me that this whole therapeutic regime, which is now the norm, should by all rights be known as "the Hubbard method". Yet Al Hubbard, a.k.a. "Captain Trips" and "the Johnny Appleseed of LSD", is not the kind of intellectual forebear anyone doing serious psychedelic science today is eager to acknowledge, much less celebrate.}}</ref> and is more closely aligned to [[transpersonal psychology]] than to traditional [[psychoanalysis]].{{citation needed|date=March 2022}} Most recent research on psychedelic therapy has used [[psilocybin]] or [[ayahuasca]].<ref name=garcia-romeu-richards-2018/>

Patients spend most of the acute period of the drug's activity lying down with eyeshades listening to music selected beforehand and exploring their inner experience. Dialogue with the therapists the drug session(s) but essential during the preparation session before and the integration session afterwards. The therapeutic team normally consists of a man and a woman, who are both present throughout the [[psychedelic experience]].<ref name="reiff-et-al-2020"/> One aspect that occurs in most participants undergoing psychedelic therapy with moderate-to-high doses is [[transcendence (philosophy)|transcendental]], [[mystical]], or [[peak experience]]s. Research has suggested that the strength of these experiences, together with discussion of them soon after in a therapeutic session, could be a major determinant of how great the longer-term effects on symptoms will be.<ref name=garcia-romeu-richards-2018/>

Some studies of psychedelic therapy have incorporated [[cognitive behavioral therapy]] (CBT) or [[motivational enhancement therapy]] (MET). Within a structured CBT intervention and a dose of psilocybin, patients are given the opportunity to experience cognitive and emotional states that are altered. With these psychedelic effects, [[cognitive reframing]] of detrimental schemas and self-identity can be modified positively.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Van Eyghen H |title=Psychedelics and the Entropic Brain Beyond the Self |journal=The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion |volume=33 |issue=4 |pages=277–293 |date=2023 |doi=10.1080/10508619.2023.2192078 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Letheby C |title=Philosophy of psychedelics |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2020}}</ref>

In a MET environment, patients are able to reflect on their own behaviors to make changes in problematic manners, such as [[alcohol use disorder]]. Additionally, it could potentially enhance motivation to change and decrease possible ambivalence about behavioral changes. Within psychedelic drug sessions, through a reevaluation of the concept of self and reconnecting with core beliefs and values, this can be achieved.<ref name=garcia-romeu-richards-2018/>

Psychedelic-assisted [[group psychotherapy]] can be more cost-efficient, because therapists can split the costs among all participants of the group.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ponomarenko |first1=Polina |last2=Seragnoli |first2=Federico |last3=Calder |first3=Abigail |last4=Oehen |first4=Peter |last5=Hasler |first5=Gregor |date=2023-02-28 |title=Can psychedelics enhance group psychotherapy? A discussion on the therapeutic factors |journal=Journal of Psychopharmacology |volume=37 |issue=7 |pages=660–678 |issn=0269-8811 |pmid=36855289 |doi=10.1177/02698811231155117 |pmc=10350738 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Newson |first1=Martha |last2=Haslam |first2=S. Alexander |last3=Haslam |first3=Catherine |last4=Cruwys |first4=Tegan |last5=Roseman |first5=Leor |date=2024-09-09 |title=Social identity processes as a vehicle for therapeutic success in psychedelic treatment |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s44220-024-00302-5 |journal=Nature Mental Health |language=en |volume=2 |issue=9 |pages=1010–1017 |doi=10.1038/s44220-024-00302-5 |issn=2731-6076}}</ref>

===Psycholytic therapy===
Psycholytic therapy involves the use of low-to-medium doses of psychedelic drugs, repeatedly at intervals of 1–2 weeks. The therapist is present during the peak of the experience to assist the patient in processing material that arises and to offer support. This general form of therapy was mostly used to treat patients with neurotic and psychosomatic disorders. The name psycholytic therapy was coined by Ronald A. Sandison,{{refn|Ronald Sandison first referred to the psycholytic model in 1955 in a speech to the [[American Psychiatric Association]], and used the term 'psycholytic therapy' at the 1960 'European Symposium on Psychotherapy Under LSD-25' at [[Göttingen University]] convened by [[Hanscarl Leuner]]. In 1964 Leuner formed the European Medical Society for Psycholytic Therapy.<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Sessa B |year=2016 |chapter=The History of Psychedelics in Medicine |veditors=von Heyden M, Jungaberle H, Majić T |title=Handbuch Psychoaktive Substanzen |pages=1–26 |series=Springer Reference Psychologie |publisher=Springer |location=Berlin, Heidelberg |isbn=978-3-642-55214-4 |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-55214-4_96-1 |s2cid=151782491}}</ref>|group=note}} literally meaning "soul-dissolving", refers to the belief that the therapy can dissolve conflicts in the mind. Psycholytic therapy was historically an important approach to psychedelic psychotherapy in [[Europe]], and was also practiced in the United States by some psychotherapists, including [[Betty Eisner]]. In the time since the 1970s, psycholytic therapy has not been a focus of research.<ref name=garcia-romeu-richards-2018/>

Psychedelic drugs are useful for exploring the subconscious because a conscious sliver of the adult ego usually remains active during the experience.<ref name="GrinBak2"/>{{rp|196}} Patients remain intellectually alert throughout the process and remember their experiences vividly afterward.<ref name="GrinBak2"/>{{rp|196}} In this highly introspective state, patients are actively aware of ego defenses such as projection, denial, and displacement as they react to themselves and their choices.<ref name="GrinBak2"/>{{rp|196}}

The ultimate goal of the therapy is to provide a safe, mutually compassionate context through which the profound and intense reliving of memories can be filtered through the principles of genuine psychotherapy.<ref>{{cite web |vauthors=Roberts G |date=2019-03-18 |title=Climax: Cinema Psychotherapy |website=Medium |language=en |url=https://medium.com/@garethroberts/climax-cinema-psychotherapy-1c975793788b |access-date=2021-05-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Passie T, Guss J, Krähenmann R |title=Lower-dose psycholytic therapy - A neglected approach |journal=Frontiers in Psychiatry |volume=13 |pages=1020505 |date=2022-12-02 |pmid=36532196 |doi=10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1020505 |doi-access=free |pmc=9755513}}</ref> Aided by the deeply introspective state attained by the patient, the therapist assists him/her in developing a new life framework or personal philosophy that recognizes individual responsibility for change.<ref name="GrinBak2"/>{{rp|196}}

In Germany, [[:de:Hanscarl Leuner|Hanscarl Leuner]] designed a form of psycholytic therapy, which was developed officially but was also used by some socio-politically motivated underground therapists in the 1970s.<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Leuner H |chapter=Standpunkte |title=Kursbuch 29. Das Elend mit der Psyche. II Psychoanalyse |location=Berlin |date=September 1972 |chapter-url=http://protest-muenchen.sub-bavaria.de/artikel/4329 |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |vauthors=Leuner H |title=Alternative Szene |language=de |url=http://protest-muenchen.sub-bavaria.de/artikel/466}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Jungaberle H, Gasser P, Weinhold J, Verres R |title=Therapie mit psychoaktiven Substanzen: Praxis und Kritik der Psychotherapie mit LSD, Psilocybin und MDMA |publisher=Hans Huber |location=Bern |year=2008 |isbn=978-3-456-84606-4 |edition=1st |language=de}}</ref>

In Switzerland, Friedericke Meckel Fisher (trained by [[:en:Stanislav Grof|Stanislav Grof]] in Breathwork and [[:de:Samuel Widmer|Samuel Widmer]] in group psychedelic sessions) practiced group psycholytic therapy mainly from the early 2000s and until 2015. Meckel Fischer developed her own system of psycholytic therapy which she conducted underground, in group weekend sessions of 15 to 19 people, using medium dosages of psychedelic substances. She added and combined into this psycholytic group work, techniques of her own modified family constellation work, cathartic body work, evocative music, and periods of sharing and feedback within the group.<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Meckel Fischer F |title=Therapy with Substance: Psycholytic psychotherapy in the twenty first century |publisher=Aeon Books Ltd |location=Great Britain |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-913274-30-6 |edition=1st |language=en}}</ref>

===Other variations===

====Claudio Naranjo====
The Chilean therapist [[Claudio Naranjo]] developed a branch of psychedelic therapy that utilized drugs like [[methylenedioxyamphetamine|MDA]], [[MDMA]], [[harmaline]], and [[ibogaine]].<ref name="GrinBak2"/>

====Anaclitic therapy====
The term ''[[wikt:anaclitic|anaclitic]]'' (from the Ancient Greek "ἀνάκλιτος", ''anaklitos'' – "for reclining") refers to primitive, infantile needs and tendencies directed toward a pre-genital love object. Developed by two London psychoanalysts, Joyce Martin and Pauline McCririck, this form of treatment is similar to psycholytic approaches as it is based largely on a psychoanalytic interpretation of abreactions produced by the treatment, but it tends to focus on those experiences in which the patient re-encounters carnal feelings of emotional deprivation and frustration stemming from the infantile needs of their early childhood. As a result, the treatment was developed with the aim to directly fulfill or satisfy those repressed, agonizing cravings for love, physical contact, and other instinctual needs re-lived by the patient. Therefore, the therapist is completely engaged with the subject, as opposed to the traditional detached attitude of the psychoanalyst. With the intense emotional episodes that came with the psychedelic experience, Martin and McCririck aimed to sit in as the "mother" role who would enter into close physical contact with the patients by rocking them, giving them milk from a bottle, etc.<ref name="GrofLSD">{{cite book |title=LSD Psychotherapy |vauthors=Grof S |publisher=MAPS |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-9660019-4-5 |edition=3rd |name-list-style=vanc}}</ref>{{page needed|date=March 2022}}

====Hypnodelic therapy====
Hypnodelic therapy, as the name suggests, was developed with the goal to maximize the power of hypnotic suggestion by combining it with the psychedelic experience. After training the patient to respond to hypnosis, LSD would be administered, and during the onset phase of the drug the patient would be placed into a state of trance. Levine and Ludwig found the combination of these techniques to be more effective than the use of either of these two components separately.<ref name=GrofLSD/>{{page needed|date=March 2022}}

==Public interest==
A resurgence of public interest in psychedelic drug therapy in the 21st century has been driven in part by articles in ''[[The New Yorker]]'', ''[[The New York Times]]'', and ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]''.<ref name="Byock-2018"/>

===Psychedelic tourism===

The first article to bring attention to the uses of psychedelic drugs for mental health was titled, "Seeking the Magic Mushroom", written by Robert Gordon Wasson and published in 1957 by ''TIME'' magazine. It detailed his experience traveling to Oaxaca, Mexico and taking "magic mushrooms" (psilocybin) within the cultural practices that started the "trip" experience. Since that time there has been growing interest within the United States to travel for these unique psychedelic experiences. The market for psychedelic tourism is currently growing rapidly. While typically the vacation destinations for psychedelics are based in Central and South America there is a rise in western culture taking over their traditional practices. In the Netherlands there are psychedelic society retreats that range from $500–1200 that center on a ceremony in which tourists take magic mushrooms and trip together for around six hours.<ref>{{cite news |title=Psychedelic tourism is a niche but growing market |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613 |url=https://www.economist.com/international/2019/06/08/psychedelic-tourism-is-a-niche-but-growing-market |access-date=2020-03-10}}</ref> There are also underground psychedelic "guides" popping up around the United States that include leaders who claim to assist people through their trip similar to shamans in other cultures. An article in ''[[The Guardian]]'' entitled "Welcome to the trip of your life: the rise of underground LSD guides" details various styles of guides that can be found within the United States.<ref>{{cite news |vauthors=Dunne C |title=Welcome to the trip of your life: the rise of underground LSD guides |date=2018-12-06 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2018/dec/06/lsd-guides-psychedelic-assisted-psychotherapy |access-date=2020-03-10}}</ref>

===Psilocybin therapy===
[[Psilocybin therapy]] is the use of [[psilocybin]] (the psychoactive ingredient in [[psilocybin mushrooms]]) in treating a range of mental health conditions, such as depression, anxiety, addictions,<ref name=":04">{{cite journal |last1=Van Court |first1=R.C. |last2=Wiseman |first2=M.S. |last3=Meyer |first3=K.W. |last4=Ballhorn |first4=D.J. |last5=Amses |first5=K.R. |last6=Slot |first6=J.C. |last7=Dentinger |first7=B.T.M. |last8=Garibay-Orijel |first8=R. |last9=Uehling |first9=J.K. |date=April 2022 |title=Diversity, biology, and history of psilocybin-containing fungi: Suggestions for research and technological development |journal=Fungal Biology |language=en |volume=126 |issue=4 |pages=308–319 |bibcode=2022FunB..126..308V |pmid=35314062 |doi=10.1016/j.funbio.2022.01.003 |doi-access=free}}</ref> obsessive compulsive disorder, and psychosis.<ref name=":15">{{cite journal |last1=Geiger |first1=Haden A. |last2=Wurst |first2=Madeline G. |last3=Daniels |first3=R. Nathan |date=2018-10-17 |title=DARK Classics in Chemical Neuroscience: Psilocybin |journal=ACS Chemical Neuroscience |language=en |volume=9 |issue=10 |pages=2438–2447 |issn=1948-7193 |pmid=29956917 |doi=10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00186 |s2cid=49591766 |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00186}}</ref>

As of January 1, 2023, psilocybin services facilitator training is available for individuals aged 21 and above who are [[Oregon]] residents.<ref name="ATMA Journey Centers"/> To become a psilocybin facilitator, an individual must complete a 120-hour regulated facilitator course, after which they may guide a client through a psilocybin experience. The facilitator may not engage the client in therapy; the therapeutic sessions held before and after the psilocybin experience itself are held by a [[psychotherapist]].<ref name="ATMA Journey Centers">{{cite web |title=Oregon's Legal Framework for Psilocybin Services {{!}} ATMA |url=https://www.atmajourney.com/oregon-legal-framework/ |access-date=2023-05-24 |website=ATMA Journey Centers |language=en-US}}</ref> As of March 2023, there are currently graduates who can practice as licensed facilitators; however, no licensed service centers are yet operating.<ref>{{cite web |date=2023-03-14 |title=As Oregon's first psilocybin facilitators graduate, an untested industry awaits |website=oregonlive |language=en |url=https://www.oregonlive.com/pacific-northwest-news/2023/03/as-oregon-first-psilocybin-facilitators-graduate-an-untested-industry-awaits.html |access-date=2023-05-24}}</ref>

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[:Category:Psychedelic drug researchers]]
* [[Concord Prison Experiment]]
* [[Hallucinogen]]
* [[History of lysergic acid diethylamide]]
* [[James Fadiman]]
* [[Psilocybin decriminalization in the United States]]
* {{annotated link|Psychedelia (film)|''Psychedelia''}}
* [[Psychedelic microdosing]]
* [[Rick Doblin]]
* [[Robin Carhart-Harris]]
* [[Roland R. Griffiths]]
* [[Psychoplastogen]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|1|group=note}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* [https://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/lsd/grofhist.htm History of LSD Therapy] (Ch. 1 of Grof's, ''LSD Psychotherapy'')
* [https://www.scribd.com/doc/26114289/The-Second-International-Conference-on-the-Use-of-LSD-in-Psychotherapy-and-Alcoholism The Second International Conference on the Use of LSD in Psychotherapy and Alcoholism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305172208/https://www.scribd.com/doc/26114289/The-Second-International-Conference-on-the-Use-of-LSD-in-Psychotherapy-and-Alcoholism |date=2016-03-05}} (1967) (entire book)

[[Category:Alternative medical treatments]]
[[Category:History of psychiatry]]
[[Category:Psychedelic drug research]]
[[Category:Psychiatric research]]