View source for Pu–Xian Min

{{Short description|Min Chinese language}}
{{Redirect|Hin Hua|Chinese Independent High School in Malaysia|Hin Hua High School}}
{{Infobox language
|name=Pu–Xian Min
|nativename={{lang|zh|莆仙語/莆仙話/興化話}}<br>{{lang|cpx|Pó-sing-gṳ̂/Pó-sing-uā/Hing-hua̍-uā}}
|states=[[China]], [[Malaysia]], [[Singapore]], [[Indonesia]], [[Taiwan]] ([[Wuqiu, Kinmen|Wuqiu]])
|region=[[Fujian]] ([[Putian]], parts of [[Fuzhou]] and [[Quanzhou]])
|ethnicity=[[Putian people|Putianese]] (Han Chinese)
|speakers={{sigfig|3.151700|3}} million
|date=2022
|ref=e26
|familycolor=Sino-Tibetan
|fam2=[[Sinitic languages|Sinitic]]
|fam3=[[Chinese language|Chinese]]
|fam4=[[Min Chinese|Min]]
|fam5=[[Min Chinese#Coastal Min|Coastal Min]]
| ancestor = [[Proto-Sino-Tibetan language|Proto-Sino-Tibetan]]
| ancestor2 = [[Old Chinese]]{{efn|name=minClassification|Min is believed to have split from Old Chinese, rather than Middle Chinese like other varieties of Chinese.<ref>{{citation |last=Mei |first=Tsu-lin |author1-link=Mei Tsu-lin |title=Tones and prosody in Middle Chinese and the origin of the rising tone |journal=Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies |volume=30 |year=1970 |pages=86–110 |doi=10.2307/2718766 |jstor=2718766}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Pulleyblank |first=Edwin G. |author-link=Edwin G. Pulleyblank |title=Middle Chinese: A study in Historical Phonology |year=1984 |page=3 |location=Vancouver |publisher=University of British Columbia Press |isbn=978-0-7748-0192-8}}</ref><ref name="glottoMin">{{Cite journal |url=https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/minn1248 |title=Glottolog 4.8 - Min |date=2023-07-10 |access-date=2023-10-13 |website=[[Glottolog]] |last1=Hammarström |first1=Harald |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231013171747/https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/minn1248 |archive-date=2023-10-13 |url-status=live |publisher=[[Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology]] |author-link=Harald Hammarström |last2=Forkel |first2=Robert |publication-place=[[Leipzig]] |doi=10.5281/zenodo.7398962 |last3=Haspelmath |first3=Martin |author-link3=Martin Haspelmath |last4=Bank |first4=Sebastian |doi-access=free}}</ref>}}
| ancestor3 = [[Proto-Min]]
|script=[[Simplified Chinese characters|Simplified Han characters]]<br>[[Traditional Chinese characters|Traditional Han characters]]<br>[[Hinghwa Romanized]] (Hing-hua̍ Báⁿ-uā-ci̍)
|dia1=[[Putian dialect|Putian]]
|dia2=[[Xianyou dialect|Xianyou]]
|iso3=cpx
|glotto=puxi1243
|glottorefname=Pu–Xian Chinese
|lingua=79-AAA-id
|notice=IPA
|map=Min dialect map.svg
|mapcaption={{legend|#3fdebf|Pu-Xian Min}}
}}
[[File:HinghwaBible1.gif|right|thumb|250px|Bible in Hinghwa (Xinghua) Romanised ([[Book of Genesis|Genesis]]), published by the [[British and Foreign Bible Society]].]]

'''Pu–Xian Min''' ([[Hinghwa Romanized]]: ''Pó-sing-gṳ̂''; {{zh|first=t|s=莆仙话|t=莆仙話|p=Púxiānhuà}}), also known as '''Putian–Xianyou Min''', '''Puxian Min''', '''Pu–Xian Chinese''', '''Xinghua''', '''Henghua''', '''Hinghua''' or '''Hinghwa''' (''Hing-hua̍-gṳ̂''; {{zh|first=t|s=兴化语|t=興化語|p=Xīnghuàyǔ}}), is a [[Chinese language]] that forms a branch of [[Min Chinese]]. Pu-Xian is a transitional variety of [[Coastal Min]] which shares characteristics with both [[Eastern Min]] and [[Southern Min]], although it is closer to the latter.

The native language of [[Putian people]], Pu-Xian is spoken mostly in [[Fujian]] province, particularly in [[Putian]] city and [[Xianyou County]] (after which it is named), parts of [[Fuzhou]], and parts of [[Quanzhou]].  It is also widely used as the mother tongue in [[Wuqiu, Kinmen|Wuqiu Township]], [[Kinmen|Kinmen County]], [[Fujian Province, Republic of China]] (Taiwan). More than 2,000 people in Shacheng, [[Fuding]] in northern Fujian also speak Pu-Xian.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cai |first=Guo-mei 蔡国妹 |date=2013 |title=Fúdǐng Àoyāo Púxiān fāngyán dǎo zài diàochá |script-title=zh:福鼎澳腰莆仙方言岛再调查 |trans-title=A Further Study on Pu-Xian Dialect Zone in Aoyao Village, Fuding |url=http://en.cnki.com.cn/Article_en/CJFDTOTAL-LYSX201301010.htm |journal=Lóngyán Xuéyuàn xuébào / Journal of Longyan University |language=zh |volume=2013 |issue=1 |pages=38–43 |doi=10.16813/j.cnki.cn35-1286/g4.2013.01.008 |via=en.cnki.com.cn}}</ref> There are minor differences between the dialects of Putian and Xianyou.

Overseas populations of Pu-Xian speakers exist in [[Malaysia]], [[Indonesia]] and [[Singapore]]. Speakers of Pu-Xian are also known as [[Henghua]], Hinghua, or Xinghua.

==History==
Before the year 979 AD, the Pu-Xian region was part of Quanzhou county and hence people there spoke a form of [[Southern Min]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2011-05-27 |title=Shìjiè shàng gēnběn wú Mǐnnányǔ ~ Wáng Huánán |script-title=zh:世界上根本無閩南語 ~ 王華南 |trans-title=There is no Hokkien in the World ~ Wang Huanan |url=http://www.taiwanus.net/church/index3/201105272034221335.htm |website=Táiwān wǎng lù jiàohuì |language=zh |script-website=zh:台灣網路教會}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Cháozhōuhuà |script-title=zh:潮州话 |trans-title=Teochew Dialect |url=http://8944.net/read/5344079.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20150621231817/http://8944.net/read/5344079.html |archive-date=2015-06-21 |access-date=2015-06-19 |website=8944.net |language=zh}}</ref>

In 979 AD, during the [[Song dynasty]], the region was administratively separated from Quanzhou and the Chinese spoken there developed separately from the rest of Southern Min. Due to its proximity with Fuzhou, it absorbed some elements of [[Eastern Min]], such as morphophonemic alternations in initial consonants, but its basic linguistic characteristics, i.e. grammar and most of its lexicon, are based on [[Southern Min]]. It also shares denasalization of historical nasal consonants and vocalic nasalization with [[Southern Min]] varieties.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lien |first=Chinfa |date=August 17–19, 1998 |title=Denasalization, Vocalic Nasalization and Related Issues in Southern Min: A Dialectal and Comparative Perspective |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237408896 |journal=International Symposium on Linguistic Change and the Chinese Dialects |ref=Lien-1998}}</ref>

Pu–Xian Min has been shown to be 62% cognate with [[Quanzhou dialect]] (Southern Min) and only 39% cognate with the [[Fuzhou dialect]] (Eastern Min).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Li |first=Rulong 李如龍 |title=Lùn Mǐn fāngyán nèibù de zhǔyào chāyì |last2=Chen |first2=Zhangtai 陳章太 |date=1991 |publisher=Yuwen Chubanshe |location=Beijing |pages=58–138 |language=zh |script-title=zh:論閩方言內部的主要差異 – 閩語硏究 <!-- please check citation formatting --> |trans-title=On the Main Differences in Min Dialects}}</ref>

==Characteristics==

===Differences with Southern Min dialects===
Pu-Xian differs from most Southern Min varieties in several ways:

* The vowel 'a' is replaced by {{IPA|/ɒ/}} (o̤) in most cases, e.g. 腳 ''ko̤'' "leg".
* The vowel 'ư' {{IPA|/ɯ/}} is replaced by {{IPA|/y/}} ('ṳ'), e.g. 魚 ''hṳ'' "fish".
* In Putian 'ng' has changed to {{IPA|/uŋ/}} except after zero initial and h- (notation: ng), e.g. 湯 ''tung'' "soup".
* The vowel /e/ is often replaced by /ɒ/ o̤, e.g. 馬 ''bo̤'' "horse".
* Where Quanzhou has 'ĩ' and Zhangzhou has 'ẽ', the corresponding Putian vowel is 'ã', e.g. 病 ''baⁿ'' "sick", where ''ⁿ'' indicates a [[nasalized vowel]].
* The vowel 'io' is replaced by 'iau' (notation: a̤u), e.g. 笑 ''ciao'' "laugh". This also holds for nasalized vowels, e.g. 張 ''da̤uⁿ'' corresponding to Zhangzhou ''tioⁿ''.
* Nasals 'm' sometimes occur in place of voiced stops 'b', e.g. 夢 ''mang'' vs. Quanzhou ''bang''.
* Initial consonant 'ng' replaces 'g' e.g. 五 'ngo' vs. Quanzhou 'go'.
* There is a loss of distinction between voiced and unvoiced stops, e.g. the sounds /b/ and /p/ both correspond to the same phoneme and occur in [[free variation]].

===Borrowings from Eastern Min ===

* Wife 老媽 (Lau Ma)

==Phonology==

Pu-Xian has 15 [[consonants]], including the [[zero onset]], the same as most other Min varieties. Pu-Xian is distinctive for having a [[lateral fricative]] {{IPA|[ɬ]}} instead of the {{IPA|[s]}} in other Min varieties, similar to [[Taishanese]].

Pu-Xian has 53 [[Syllable#Structure|finals]] and 6 phonemic [[Tone (linguistics)|tones]].

===Initials===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Pu–Xian Min Initial Chart
|-
! colspan="2" |
! [[Bilabial]] !! [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]] !! [[Velar]] !! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Plosive]]
! unaspirated
| {{IPAlink|p}} 巴 (b)
| {{IPAlink|t}} 打 (d)
| {{IPAlink|k}} 家 (g)
| {{IPAlink|ʔ}} 烏
|-
! [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]]
| {{IPAlink|pʰ}} 彭 (p)
| {{IPAlink|tʰ}} 他 (t)
| {{IPAlink|kʰ}} 卡 (k)
|
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Nasal stop|Nasals]]
| {{IPAlink|m}} 麻 (m)
| {{IPAlink|n}} 拿 (n)
| {{IPAlink|ŋ}} 雅 (ng)
|
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Fricatives]]
|{{IPAlink|β}}*
|{{IPAlink|ɬ}} 沙 (s)
|
| {{IPAlink|h}} 下 (h)
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Affricates]]
! unaspirated
|
| {{IPAlink|ts}} 渣 (c)
|
|
|-
! [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]]
|
| {{IPAlink|tsʰ}} 査 (ch)
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Approximant]]
|
|{{IPAlink|l}} 拉 (l)
|
|
|}
*{{IPAlink|β}} (only appears in connected speech. It's a result of [[consonant mutation]] of [p])

===Finals===
Pu–Xian Min has 53 finals (including nasalised finals)
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Finals
|-
! !! Vowel !! Diphthong !! Nasal !! Glottal
|-
! rowspan="6" | no glide
| {{IPA|a}} 鴉 (a)
| {{IPA|au}} 拗 (au)
| {{IPA|aŋ}} 王 (ang)
| {{IPA|aʔ}} 壓 (ah)
|-
| {{IPA|ɒ}} 奥 (o̤)
|
| {{IPA|ɒŋ}} 用 (o̤ng)
| {{IPA|ɒʔ}} 屋 (o̤h)
|-
| {{IPA|ɔ}} 科 (eo)
| {{IPA|ɔu}} 烏 (o)
| {{IPA|ɔŋ}} 温 (eong)
| {{IPA|oʔ}} 熨 (eoh)
|-
| {{IPA|e}} 裔 (a̤)
| {{IPA|ai}} 愛 (ai)
| {{IPA|ɛŋ}} 煙 (eng)
| {{IPA|ɛʔ}} 黑 (eh)
|-
| {{IPA|œ}} 改 (e̤)
|
| {{IPA|œŋ}} 換 (e̤ng)
| {{IPA|œʔ}} 郁 (e̤h)
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|ŋ}} 伓 (ng)
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | /-i-/
| {{IPA|i}} 衣 (i)
| {{IPA|iu}} 油 (iu)
| {{IPA|iŋ}} 引 (ing)
| {{IPA|iʔ}} 益 (ih)
|-
| {{IPA|ia}} 夜 (ia)
| {{IPA|iau}} 要 (a̤u)
| {{IPA|iaŋ}} 鹽 (iang)
| {{IPA|iaʔ}} 葉 (iah)
|-
! rowspan="2" | /-u-/
| {{IPA|u}} 夫 (u)
| {{IPA|ui}} 位 (ui)
|'' {{IPA|uŋ}}'' 黄 (ng)
|-
| {{IPA|ua}} 画 (ua)
| ɔi/{{IPA|ue}} 歪 (oi)
| {{IPA|uaŋ}} 碗 (uang)
| {{IPA|uaʔ}} 活 (uah)
|-
! rowspan="2" | /-y-/
| {{IPA|y}} 余 (ṳ)
|
| {{IPA|yŋ}} 恩 (ṳng)
| {{IPA|yʔ}} 役 (ṳh)
|-
| {{IPA|yɒ}} 安 (io̤ⁿ)
|
| {{IPA|yɒŋ}} 羊 (io̤ng)
| {{IPA|yɒʔ}} 藥 (io̤h)
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Chinese character
|黃 (ńg)
|方 (hng)
|漲 (dn̂g)
|幫 (bng)
|光 (gng)
|兩 (nn̄g)
|毛 (mńg)
|-
!Putian
| uŋ
| huŋ
| tuŋ
| puŋ
| kuŋ
| nuŋ
| muŋ
|-
![[Xianyou]]
| ŋ̍
| hŋ̍
| tŋ̍
| pŋ̍
| kŋ̍
| nŋ̍
| mŋ̍
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="height:20px; text-align:center"
|+ Xianyou dialect nasals
|-
!IPA
| ã
| ẽ
| ɛ̃
| ĩ
| ỹ
| ɒ̃
| iã
| yã
| uã
| aĩ
| aũ
| uĩ
| iũ
|-
!Romanization
| aⁿ
| a̤ⁿ
|
| a̤ⁿ
| e̤ⁿ
| o̤ⁿ
| iaⁿ
| io̤ⁿ
| uaⁿ
|
|
| oiⁿ
| a̤uⁿ
|-
!Romanized IPA
| ã
|
|
| ẽ
| ø̃
| ɒ̃
| iã
| yɒ̃
| uã
|
|
| oĩ
| ɛũ
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Chinese character
|爭 (caⁿ)
|還 (há̤ⁿ)
|段 (dē̤ⁿ)
|三 (so̤ⁿ)
|鼎 (diáⁿ)
|張 (da̤uⁿ)
|看 (kua̍ⁿ)
|飯 (bōiⁿ)
|贏 (ió̤ⁿ)
|-
!Xianyou
| tsã
| hĩ
| tỹ
| sɒ̃
| tiã
| tiũ
| kʰuã
| puĩ
| yɒ̃
|-
!Putian
| tsa
| hi
| tø
| sɒ
| tia
| tiau
| kʰua
| puai
| yɒ
|}

===Tone===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Tone
|Ing-báⁿ 陰平
|Ing-siō̤ng 陰上
|Ing-kṳ̍ 陰去
|Ing-ci̍h 陰入
|Ió̤ng-báⁿ 陽平
|Ió̤ng-kṳ̍ 陽去
|Ió̤ng-ci̍h 陽入
|-
!Putian
| ˥˧˧ (533)
| ˦˥˧ (453)
| ˦˨ (42)
| ʔ˨˩ (ʔ21)
| ˩˧ (13)
| ˩ (11)
| ʔ˦ (ʔ4)
|-
!Xianyou
| ˥˦˦ (544)
| ˧˧˨ (332)
| ˥˨ (52)
| ʔ˨ (ʔ2)
| ˨˦ (24)
| ˨˩ (21)
| ʔ˦ (ʔ4)
|}

===Register===
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Xianyou dialect register chart
|-
!Chinese character
|買
|黃
|生
|領
|師
|兩
|火
|壁
|著
|-
!Colloquial
| pe
| ŋ̍
| ɬã, tsʰã
| nia
| ɬai
| nŋ̍
| hoe
| pia
| tieu
|-
!Literary
| mai
| hɒŋ
| ɬɛŋ
| liŋ
| ɬo
| løŋ
| hɒ
| piʔ
| tøʔ
|}

===Assimilation===
新婦房　ɬiŋ '''p'''u '''p'''aŋ　→　ɬiŋ '''m'''u '''β'''aŋ

青草 tsʰɔŋ '''tsʰ'''au　→　tsʰɔŋ '''n'''au

===Comparison between Putian Min and Quanzhou Min Nan===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Chinese character
|埋 (lit.)
|萬 (lit.)
|人 (lit.)
|入
|危 (lit.)
|逆
|內
|諾
|-
!Putian
|mai
|man
|tsin
|tsiʔ
|kui
|kiʔ
|tue
|tɔʔ
|-
!Quanzhou
|bai
|ban
|lin
|dzip
|ɡui
|ɡiak
|lue
|lɔk
|}

==Sentence-final particles==
* ''ah'' ({{lang|zh|啊}}): used to express exclamation.
* ''lah'' ({{lang|zh|啦}}): used to stress or for adding emotional effect to your words.
* ''neh'' ({{lang|zh|呢}}): used for questioning.
* ''nɔ'' ({{lang|zh|唔}}): used to express emotion.
* ''yɔu'' ({{lang|zh|哟}}): used to denote obviousness or contention.

==Romanization==
{{Main|Hinghwa Romanized}}
Hing-hua̍ báⁿ-uā-ci̍ ({{lang|zh|興化平話字}}) is the Romanization system for Pu–Xian Min. It has 23 letters: {{Not a typo|a a̤ b c ch d e e̤ g h i k l m n ng o o̤ p s t u ṳ}}.

The Romanization only needs five tone marks for seven tones:

* 陰平 Ing-báⁿ　(unmarked)
* 陰上 Ing-siō̤ng　ˆ (â)
* 陰去 Ing-kṳ̍　ˈ (a̍)
* 陰入 Ing-ci̍h (unmarked)
* 陽平 Ió̤ng-báⁿ　́ (á)
* 陽去 Ió̤ng-kṳ̍　– (ā)
* 陽入 Ió̤ng-ci̍h　ˈh (a̍h)　

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! IPA
! Pu–Xian Min (Xinghua)
! [[Fuzhou dialect|Fuzhou]]
|-
| pʰ
| p
| p
|-
| tʰ
| t
| t
|-
| kʰ
| k
| k
|-
| p
| b
| b
|-
| t
| d
| d
|-
| k
| g
| g
|-
| tsʰ
| ch
| ch
|-
| ts
| c
| c
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Tone
!陰平 Ing-báⁿ
!陰上 Ing-siō̤ng
!陰去 Ing-kṳ̍
!陰入 Ing-ci̍h
!陽平 Ió̤ng-báⁿ
!陽去 Ió̤ng-kṳ̍
!陽入 Ió̤ng-ci̍h
|-
!Báⁿ-uā-ci̍
| a
| â
| a̍
| ah
| á
| ā
| a̍h
|-
![[Pe̍h-ōe-jī]]
| a
| á
| à
| ah
| â
| ā
| a̍h
|}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Incubator|code=cpx}}
{{incubator|cpx|wiktionary}}
{{WikisourceWiki|Pó-sing-gṳ̂}}
* [http://repository.tufs.ac.jp/bitstream/10108/21681/1/jaas018007.pdf Motoki Makajima, Conversational Texts in Two Min Dialects, 1979]
* [https://omniglot.com/chinese/puxian.htm Pu-Xian Min at Omniglot]

{{Sino-Tibetan languages}}
{{Min Chinese}}
{{Chinese language}}
{{Languages of Taiwan}}

[[Category:Pu-Xian Min]]
[[Category:Languages of China]]
[[Category:Languages of Taiwan]]
[[Category:Languages of Malaysia]]
[[Category:Languages of Singapore]]