View source for Sama–Bajaw languages

{{Short description|Austronesian language family of Borneo and the Philippines}}
{{redirect|Sama languages|other languages called Sama|Sama language (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox language family
|name=Sama–Bajaw
|altname=
|region=[[Sulu Archipelago]] and [[Capul]], between the Philippines , Borneo, Sulawesi, Maluku
|familycolor=Austronesian
|fam2=[[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]]
|fam3=([[Barito languages|Barito]])
|protoname=Proto-Sama–Bajaw
|glotto=sama1302
|glottorefname=Sama–Bajaw
}}
[[File:Sama woman with traditional sun protection ("borak").JPG|thumb|The Sinama speakers of Semporna, Malaysia are known as Bajau.  This Bajau woman wears "[[borak (cosmetic)|borak]]" the traditional sun protection.]]
[[File:Sama Fisherman rowing out from Tinutu' Village.jpg|thumb|Rowing out from Tinutu' Village, a Sama village outside of Sulu where several Central Sinama dialects are spoken.  Most notably Sinama Musu' and Sinama Silumpak.]]

The '''Sama–Bajaw languages''' are a well-established group of languages spoken by the [[Sama-Bajau peoples]] (''A'a sama'') of the [[Philippines]], [[Indonesia]], and [[Malaysia]].

==Languages==
Grimes (2003) identifies nine Sama–Bajaw languages. 
#Balangingi (Bangingi'; Northern Sama)
#Central Sama (Siasa Sama)
#Southern Sama (Sinama)
#[[Pangutaran Sama language|Pangutaran Sama]]
#Mapun (Kagayan)
#[[Yakan language|Yakan]]
#[[Abaknon language|Abaknon]] (Inabaknon)
#Indonesian Bajau
#West Coast Bajau

The first six are spoken in the Sulu region of the southern Philippines. Indonesian Bajau is spoken mainly in [[Sulawesi]] and West Coast Bajau in [[Sabah]], Borneo. Several dialects of the languages can be identified.<ref name="Miller 2007">{{Cite thesis |last=Miller |first=Mark Turner |title=A Grammar of West Coast Bajau |date=2007 |degree=Ph.D. |publisher=University of Texas at Arlington |hdl=10106/577 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

Blust (2006)<ref>{{Cite book |title=Current Issues in Philippine Linguistics and Anthropology |last=Blust |first=Robert |publisher=Linguistic Society of the Philippines and SIL Philippines |year=2006 |editor-last=Liao |editor-first=Hsiu-chuan |location=Manila |pages=31–68 |chapter=The Linguistic Macrohistory of the Philippines: Some Speculations |editor-last2=Rubino |editor-first2=Carl R. Galvez |chapter-url=https://www.sil.org/system/files/reapdata/86/84/43/86844389952365766047394359699729955999/Blust.pdf}}</ref> states that lexical evidence indicates that Sama–Bajaw originated in the [[Barito River|Barito]] region of southeast Borneo, although not from any established group of [[Barito languages]]. ''Ethnologue'' has followed, calling the resulting group 'Greater Barito'.

==Classification==
Pallesen (1985:18) classifies the Sama–Bajaw languages as follows.

{{tree list}}
*'''Sama-Bajaw'''
**''[[Abaknon language|Abaknon]]''
**''[[Yakan language|Yakan]]'': Northern Yakan, Southern Yakan
**Sibuguey (''Sama Batuan'')
**Sulu-Borneo
***''Western Sulu'': Sama Pangutaran, Sama Ubian
***Inner Sulu
****''Northern Sulu'': Tagtabun Balangingiq, Tongquil Balangingiq, Linungan, Panigayan Balangingiq, Landang-Guaq, Mati, Sama Daongdong, Kawit Balangingiq, Karundung, Pilas
****''Central Sulu'': Sama Kaulungan, Sama Dilaut, Sama Kabingan, Sama Musuq, Sama Laminusa, Sama Balimbing, Sama Bannaran, Sama Bangaw-Bangaw, South Ubian
****''Southern Sulu'': Sama Tanduq-baas, Sama Simunul, Sama Pahut, Sama Sibutuq, Sama Sampulnaq
****''Sama Lutangan'', ''Sama Sibukuq''
***Borneo Coast
****''Jama Mapun''
****''Sabah Land Bajaw'': Kota Belud Bajaw, Kawang Bajaw, Papar Bajaw, Banggi Bajaw, Putatan Bajaw
****''Indonesian Bajaw'': Sulamu, Kajoa, Roti, Jaya Bakti, Poso, Togian 1, Wallace, Togian 2, Minahasa
{{tree list/end}}

The ''Ethnologue'' divides Sinama into seven languages based on [[mutual intelligibility]]. The seven Sinama languages are Northern Sinama, Central Sinama, Southern Sinama, Sinama Pangutaran from the island of [[Pangutaran, Sulu|Pangutaran]] off of Jolo island, Mapun, Bajau West Coast of Sabah and Bajau Indonesia. Jama Mapun, a language from the island of [[Mapun, Tawi-Tawi|Mapun]], formerly known as Cagayan de Sulu, is a related language and sometimes also referred to as Sinama.  These classifications are rarely recognized by Sama themselves who instead classify their Sinama by the village or island it originates from.  The emic classification of a Sama person's language e.g. Silumpak, Laminusa, Tabawan generally form the different dialects of the seven Sinama or Bajau languages.

Together, West Coast Bajau, Indonesian Bajau, and Mapun comprise a ''Borneo Coast Bajaw'' branch in ''Ethnologue''.

===Dialects===
The following is a list of Sama-Bajaw dialects. Locations and demographics are from Palleson (1985)<ref name="Pallesen1985">{{cite journal |last1=Pallesen |first1=A. Kemp |date=1985 |title=Culture Contact and Language Convergence |url=http://www-01.sil.org/asia/philippines/ling/Culture_Contact_and_Language_Convergence_1985.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Linguistic Society of the Philippines |series=LSP Special Monograph Issue |issue=24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150511231324/http://www-01.sil.org/asia/philippines/ling/Culture_Contact_and_Language_Convergence_1985.pdf |archive-date=2015-05-11}}</ref> and ''Ethnologue'' (individual languages with separately assigned ISO codes highlighted in '''bold''').

*'''West Coast Bajau'''
**''Kota Belud'': [[Kota Belud]], 60&nbsp;km north of [[Kota Kinabalu]]
**''[[Putatan]]''
**''Papar'': [[Papar, Malaysia|Papar]], 50&nbsp;km south of [[Kota Kinabalu]]
**''Banggi'': [[Banggi]] Island, north of [[Kudat]] in the north of [[Sabah]]
**''[[Sandakan]]''
**''[[Pitas, Malaysia|Pitas]]''
**''Kawang'': [[Kawang railway station|Kawang]], 40&nbsp;km south of [[Kota Kinabalu]]
*'''Indonesian Bajau'''
**''Jampea''
**''Same’''
**''Matalaang''
**''Sulamu'': Sulamu, [[Kupang Regency|Kupang]] Bay, southern [[Timor]]. 400 speakers.
**''Kajoa'': [[Kajoa]] Island, 80&nbsp;km south of [[Ternate]] off the west coast of [[Halmahera]]
**''Roti'': [[Roti Island]], southwest of Timor. Fewer than 200 speakers.
**''Jaya Bakti'': Jaya Bakti, [[Banggai Regency]], central [[Sulawesi]]. 3,000 speakers.
**''Poso'': Polande, [[Poso Regency]], on the southeast coast of the Gulf of Poso, central Sulawesi
**''Togian 1'': Pulaw Enaw, just off the south coast of [[Togian]] Island, [[Gulf of Tomini]], Sulawesi
**''Togian 2'': [[Togian Islands]], Gulf of Tomini, Sulawesi
**''Wallace'': exact location unknown, probably central [[Moluccas]]. 117 words collected by [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] around 1860.
*'''Inabaknon''': [[Capul]] Island, off the coast of northwestern [[Samar]], central Philippines
*'''Yakan''': eastern [[Basilan]] Island, southern [[Zamboanga Peninsula]]. 60,000 speakers.
**''Northern Yakan'':<ref name="Pallesen1985"/> northern part of eastern [[Basilan]] Island
**''Southern Yakan'':<ref name="Pallesen1985"/> southern part of eastern [[Basilan]] Island
*'''Pangutaran Sama''' (''Western Sulu Sama'' branch)
**''Sama Pangutaran'':<ref name="Pallesen1985"/> [[Pangutaran]] Island, 50&nbsp;km northwest of [[Jolo]] City. 12,000 speakers. Some live in Palawan
**''Sama Ubihan'':<ref name="Pallesen1985"/> North Ubian Island, a few miles southwest of [[Pangutaran]]. 2,000 speakers. Also called ''a'a ubian, a'a sowang buna''' 'people of Buna' channel'.
*''Inner Sulu Sama'' branch
**'''Northern Sama''' (''Northern Sulu'' in Pallesen (1985))
***''Lutangan (Lutango)'': mainland of Mindanao opposite [[Olutanga]] Island
***[[Sibuco-Vitali dialect|Sibuco-Vitali]] ''(Sibuku’)'': inland area across the [[Zamboanga Peninsula]], 50&nbsp;km north of [[Zamboanga City]]. 11,000 speakers. Also called ''sama bitali', sama nawan''.
***[[Sibuguey]] ''(Batuan)'': Kulasihan River on the eastern side of [[Sibuguey Bay]] between [[Olutanga]] Island and the head of the bay
***''Balangingi''
***''Daongdung'' (''Sama Daongdong''): Daongdong Island, off the southeast coast of [[Jolo]] Island
***''Kabinga’an''
***''Tagtabun Balangingi’'':<ref name="Pallesen1985"/> Tagtabun Island, just east of [[Zamboanga City]]. Regular population of 300 as of 1972. Also called ''bahasa bāngingi' (bāngingi', a'a tagtabun)''.
***''Tongquil Balangingi’'':<ref name="Pallesen1985"/> [[Banguingui, Sulu|Tongquil]] Island in the Samales group, east of [[Jolo]] Island. 8,000 speakers. Also called ''sama tongkil''.
***''Linungan'':<ref name="Pallesen1985"/> [[Akbar, Basilan|Linungan]] (Linongan) or Cocos Island, off the northeast coast of [[Basilan]] Island
***''Panigayan Balangingi’'':<ref name="Pallesen1985"/> Malamawi Island, just off the west coast of [[Basilan]] Island. Several hundred speakers. Also called ''bahasa balangingi' (sama bāngingi')''.
***''Landang-Gua’'':<ref name="Pallesen1985"/> Sakol or Landang Island, just east of [[Zamboanga City]], north of Tagtabun Island. Also called ''a'a landang-gua''' ('Landang-Gua’ people').
***''Mati'':<ref name="Pallesen1985"/> [[Mati, Davao Oriental]], just east of the San Agustin Peninsula
***''Kawit Balangingi’'':<ref name="Pallesen1985"/> [[Kawit]], 10&nbsp;km west of [[Zamboanga City]]
***''Karundung'':<ref name="Pallesen1985"/> Karundung, on the southeast coast of [[Jolo]] Island
***''Pilas'':<ref name="Pallesen1985"/> [[Hadji Muhtamad|Pilas Islands]], 15&nbsp;km west of [[Basilan]] Island
**'''Central Sama'''
***''Sama Deya''
***''Sama Dilaut'': throughout [[Sulu]], but especially in [[Zamboanga City]], in [[Siasi]], and in [[Sitangkai]], south of [[Tawi-Tawi]] Island. 80,000 speakers in the Philippines. Also called ''sama to'ongan'' 'genuine Sama'; ''sama pagūng'' 'floating Sama'; ''sama pala'u'' 'boat-dwelling Sama'.
***''Sama [[Siasi]]''
***''Sama Laminusa'': Laminusa Island, just off the north coast of [[Siasi]] Island. 5,000 speakers.
***''Sama Tabawan''
***''Sama Kaulungan'':<ref name="Pallesen1985"/> Kaulungan Island, just off the eastern end of [[Basilan]] Island. At least 1,000 speakers.
***''Sama Musu’'':<ref name="Pallesen1985"/> south coast of [[Siasi]] Island. 3,000 speakers. Intermarriage with Sama Dilaut. Also called ''Sama Lipid'' (Littoral Sama) by the Sama Dilaut (Sea Sama).
***''Sama Balimbing'':<ref name="Pallesen1985"/> [[Balimbing]], on the east coast of [[Tawi-Tawi]] Island (listed as part of ''Southern Sama'' in Ethnologue)
***''Sama Bannaran'':<ref name="Pallesen1985"/> Bannaran Island, [[Sapa-Sapa, Tawi-Tawi]].
***''Sama Bangaw-Bangaw'':<ref name="Pallesen1985"/> near [[Sandakan]] on the northeast coast of [[Sabah]]
***''South Ubihan'':<ref name="Pallesen1985"/> [[South Ubian]] Island, east of the northeast end of [[Tawi-Tawi]] Island. Census figure of 27,000, including the population of [[Tandubas]].
**'''Southern Sama'''
***''Sibutu’ (Sama Sibutu)'': [[Sibutu]]’ Island, southwest of [[Bongao]] Island. About 10,000 speakers.
***''Simunul'': [[Simunul]] Island, south of [[Bongao]] Island. 10,000 speakers. Also called ''sama səddopan''.
***''Tandubas (Tandu’-baas)'': [[Tandubas]] Island,  just of the northeastern point of [[Tawi-Tawi]] Island. Census figure of 27,000, including the population of [[Tandubas]]. Also called ''a'a tandu'-bās'' 'people of Tandu-Bas', ''a'a ungus matata'' 'people of Ungus Matata'. The Sama of central Sulu call them ''obian, ubian, sama s'ddopan'' 'Southern Sama'.
***''Obian''
***''[[Bongao]]''
***''[[Sitangkai]]''
***''[[Languyan]]''
***''Sapa-Sapa''
***''Sama Pahut'':<ref name="Pallesen1985"/> [[Bongao]] Island. About 1,000 speakers.
***''Sama Sampulna’'':<ref name="Pallesen1985"/> [[Semporna]], east [[Sabah]]
***''[[Berau Regency|Berau]]'', [[East Kalimantan]] about 46,000 speakers.
*'''Mapun''': 43,000 in the [[Philippines]]; 15,000 Mapun people in [[Sabah]], [[Malaysia]] (2011 SIL)
**''[[Mapun]]'' is spoken on Cagayan de Sulu ([[Mapun]]) island, [[Tawi-Tawi]], Philippines.
***20,000 in [[Mapun]] island
***5,000 to 10,000 Mapun people in [[Palawan]]
*'''Bajau West Coast Sabah'''
**''[[Kota Belud]]''
**''[[Tuaran]]''
**''[[Kudat]]''
*'''Bajau Indonesia'''
**''[[Gorontalo]] Torosiaje, Popayato, Pohuwato''

{| class="wikitable"
|+Sama–Bajaw dialects
! Northern Sinama
! Central Sinama
! Southern Sinama
! Sinama Pangutaran
! Sinama Mapun
! Bajau West Coast Sabah
! Bajau Indonesia
|-
|Tagtabun Balangingi'
|Sama Kaulungan
|Simunul
|Pangutaran
|
|Kota Belud
|Torosiaje
|-
|Tonquil Balangingi'
|Sama Dilaut
|Sibutu'
|Ubian (North)
|
|Tuaran
|-
|Linungan
|Musu'
|Tandubas
|
|
|Kudat
|-
|Panigayan Balangingi'
|Laminusa
|Sitangkai
|
|
|Pitas
|-
|Landang-Gua'
|Balimbing
|Ubian (South)
|-
|Sama Daongdong
|Bannaran
|Languyan
|-
|Kawit Balangingi'
|Bangaw-Bangaw
|Sapa-Sapa
|-
|Karundung
|Tabawan
|Bongao/Sanga-Sanga/Pahut
|-
|Pilas
|Manubal
|Berau East Kalimantan
|-
|
|Silumpak

|-
|
|Kabinga'an
|}

==Distribution==
'''West Coast Bajau''' (''Borneo Coast Bajau'') is distributed in the following locations of [[Sabah]], [[Malaysia]] (''Ethnologue'').
*scattered along the west coast from [[Papar, Malaysia|Papar]] district to [[Kudat]] district, mainly in [[Tuaran]] and [[Kota Belud]] towns
*Telutu’ village, [[Banggi Island]], [[Kudat]] district
*[[Pitas, Malaysia|Pitas]] district: along the west coast and Mengkubau Laut, Mengkapon, Dalima’, Mapan-Mapan, Pantai Laut, Layag-Layag, Mausar, Jambangan, Sibayan Laut, and Kanibungan villages

'''Indonesian Bajau''' is widely distributed throughout [[Sulawesi]] and [[Nusa Tenggara]]. It is also located throughout [[Maluku Utara]] Province in the [[Bacan Islands]], [[Obi Islands]], [[Kayoa]], and [[Sula Islands]], which are located to the southwest of [[Halmahera]] Island (''Ethnologue'').

'''Mapun''' is spoken on Cagayan de Sulu ([[Mapun]]) island, [[Tawi-Tawi]], Philippines.

''[[Ethnologue]]'' provides the following location information for various Sama languages.

'''Northern Sama''' is located in western [[Mindanao]], the [[Sulu archipelago]] northeast of [[Jolo]], Zamboanga coast peninsula and islands, and [[Basilan]] island.
*''Northern Sama'' dialect: White Beach near [[Subic Bay]], Luzon
*''Lutangan'' dialect: [[Olutanga, Zamboanga Sibugay|Olutanga]] Island. Possibly also in Luzon and Palawan.

'''Central Sama''' is located in:
*[[Sulu]] and [[Tawi-Tawi]] provinces: [[Siasi]], [[Tabawan]], [[Bongao]], [[Sitangkai]], [[Cagayan de Sulu]] island
*[[Basilan]] Island: [[Maluso]], Malamawi, Bohe’ Lobbong
*[[Zamboanga del Sur]] Province: Rio Hondo, Batuan Lumbayaw, Taluk Sangay, [Sanggali
*[[Zamboanga del Norte]] Province: [[Olutanga]]
*[[Davao City]]: Isla Verde and Sasa
*[[Cagayan de Oro]]
*[[Cebu]] and [[Tagbilaran]]
*[[Puerto Princesa]], [[Palawan]]
*[[Batangas]]

'''Southern Sama''' is located in [[Tawi-Tawi]] Island Province (in Tawi-Tawi, [[Simunul]], [[Sibutu]], and other major islands) and [[East Kalimantan]] ([[Berau Regency|Berau]])

'''Pangutaran Sama''' is spoken on [[Pangutaran]] Island, located to the west of [[Jolo]]; and in [[Cagayan de Tawi-Tawi]], southern Palawan

'''Yakan''' is spoken in [[Basilan]] and small surrounding islands; [[Sakol]] island; and the eastern coast of Zamboanga. Yakan tends to be concentrated away from the coast.

'''Inabaknon''' is spoken on [[Capul]] Island, [[Northern Samar]] Province. Capul Island is located in the [[San Bernardino Strait]], which separates [[Samar]] from the [[Bicol Peninsula]] of [[Luzon]].

'''Bajau West Coast Sabah''' is spoken in [[Kota Belud]], [[Kudat]], and [[Tuaran]] which is on [[mutual intelligibility]] with Bajau East Coast of Sabah.

==Population==
''Ethnologue'' lists the following population statistics for Borneo Coast Bajau.

*'''West Coast Bajau''': 55,000 in [[Sabah]], [[Malaysia]] (2000 SIL)
*'''Indonesian Bajau''': 150,000 in [[Indonesia]] (Mead et al. 2007)
**5,000 or more in [[North Maluku]] (Grimes 1982)
**8,000 to 10,000 in [[South Sulawesi]] (Grimes 1987)
**7,000 in [[North Sulawesi]] and [[Gorontalo]]
**36,000 in [[Central Sulawesi]]
**40,000 in [[Southeast Sulawesi]] (Mead et al. 2007)
**several thousand in [[Nusa Tenggara]] (Wurm and Hattori 1981, Verheijen 1986)
*'''Mapun''': 43,000 in the [[Philippines]]; 15,000 Mapun people in [[Sabah]], [[Malaysia]] (2011 SIL)
**20,000 in [[Mapun]] island
**5,000 to 10,000 Mapun people in [[Palawan]]

== Grammar ==

=== Voice ===
Western Austronesian languages are characterised by symmetrical [[Voice (grammar)|voice]] alternations. These differ from asymmetrical voice alternations, such as active and passive, since the voices can be considered equally transitive.<ref>Himmelmann, Nikolaus P. 2005. The Austronesian Languages of Asia and Madagascar: Typological Charactersistics. In A. Adelaar and N. P. Himmelmann (eds.) ''The Austronesian Languages of Asia and Madagascar'', 110-181. London: Routledge.</ref> Hence, the terms ''actor voice'' and ''undergoer voice'' are sometimes used. 
* ''Actor voice'' (AV) refers to the construction in which the actor or agent-like argument is mapped to subject. 
* ''Undergoer voice'' (UV) refers to the construction in which the undergoer or patient-like argument is mapped to subject. 
The voice construction is signalled through morphological marking on the verb.

Western Austronesian languages are typically subdivided into Philippine-type and Indonesian-type languages on the basis of the voice system:<ref>{{Cite book|title = The many faces of Austronesian voice systems: some new empirical studies|last = Arka|first = I. Wayan|publisher = Pacific Linguistics|year = 2005|isbn = 0-85883-556-8|last2 = Ross|first2 = Malcolm}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
!Philippine-type
!Indonesian-type
|-
|Multiple Undergoer Voices that map different [[Thematic relation|semantic roles]] to [[Subject (grammar)|subject]]
|Two symmetrical voices: Actor Voice and Undergoer Voice
|-
|AV has lower transitivity
|True [[Passive voice|passive]] construction
|-
|[[Case marking]] of nominal arguments
|[[Applicative voice|Applicative]] suffixes
|}
The voice alternations in Sama–Bajaw languages have some characteristics of Philippine-type languages and some characteristics of Indonesian-type languages.<ref name="Miller 2007" />

Miller (2014) says that there are three main voice alternations in Sama-Bajaw:<ref name=":0">Miller, Mark. 2014. 'A comparative look at the major voice oppositions in Sama-Bajau languages and Indonesian/Malay. In Wayan Arka and N. L. K. Mas Indrawati (eds.) ''Argument realisations and related constructions in Austronesian languages'', 303-312. Canberra: Asia-Pacific Linguistics.</ref>
* An AV construction marked with a nasal prefix.
* A transitive non-AV construction with the bare verb.
* Another non-AV construction with morphological marking on the verb and case marking on the agent.
In many Philippine languages, the UV construction is said to be basic. This has led people to analyse the languages as [[Ergative–absolutive language|syntactically ergative]].<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Aldridge |first=Edith |title=Ergativity and Word Order in Austronesian Languages |date=2004 |degree=Ph.D |publisher=Cornell University |url=https://faculty.washington.edu/aldr/pdf/phd1.pdf}}</ref> This analysis has been proposed for Sama Southern,<ref>Trick, Douglas. 2006. ‘Ergative control of syntactic processes in Sama Southern’. Paper presented at Tenth International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics. January 2006. Puerto Princesa City, Palawan, Philippines</ref> Yakan,<ref>Brainard, Sherri and Dietlinde Behrens. 2002. ''A Grammar of Yakan''. Manila: Linguistic Society of the Philippines, No. 40, Vol. 1</ref> Sama Bangingi’,<ref>Gault, JoAnn Marie. 1999. An ergative description of Sama Bangingi’. Manila: Linguistic Society of the Philippines.</ref> and Sama Pangutaran.<ref>Walton, Charles. 1986. ''Sama verbal semantics: classification, derivation and inflection''. Manila: Linguistic Society of the Philippines</ref> These languages are said to have Philippine-type voice systems.

West Coast Bajau, however, is said to have an Indonesian-type voice system because there are two [[Transitive verb|transitive]] voices; a true passive construction (''-in-'') and an applicative suffix (''-an'').<ref name="Miller 2007" /> This makes West Coast Bajau more similar to the languages of [[Sarawak]] and [[Kalimantan]] than the other languages of Sabah.<ref>Clayre, Beatrice. 1996. The changing face of focus in the languages of Borneo. In H. Steinhauer (ed.) ''Papers in Austronesian Linguistics'' No. 3, 51-88. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.</ref>

Indonesian Bajau also has an Indonesian-type voice system as illustrated below:<ref>{{Cite journal|jstor = 416102|title = Bajau: A Symmetrical Austronesian Language|journal = Language|volume = 72|issue = 4|pages = 782–793|last1 = Donohue|first1 = Mark|year = 1996|doi = 10.2307/416102}}</ref>

{{interlinear|indent=3
|top= '''Actor voice'''
|ng-ita uggo' aku
|AV-see pig 1SG
|'I saw the pig'|lang=bdl}}

{{interlinear|indent=3
|top= '''Bare undergoer voice'''
|kita-ku uggo'
|see-1SG pig
|'I saw the pig'|lang=bdl}}

{{interlinear|indent=3
|top= '''Passive'''
|di-kita-ku uggo'
|PASS-see-1SG pig
|'The pig was seen by me'|lang=bdl}}

{{interlinear|indent=3
|top= '''Accidental passive'''
|ta-kita uggo' ma aku
|ACC.PASS-see pig OBL 1SG
|'The pig was accidentally seen by me'|lang=bdl}}

In some Sama–Bajau languages there are restrictions on how the non-AV actor is realised. For example, in Sama Bangingi’ the non-AV actor is typically a pronominal [[clitic]] in first or second person.<ref name=":0" />

The voice alternations in Sama–Bajau languages can also be accompanied by a change in the [[Case marking|case-marking]] of pronouns and a change in [[Word order|word-order]].<ref name="Miller 2007" />

=== Case marking ===
Sama–Bajau languages do not have case-marking on nominal arguments.

Nonetheless, pronouns have different forms depending on their [[grammatical function]]. Like the languages of Sarawak,<ref>Clayre, Beatrice. 2014. ‘A preliminary typology of the languages of Middle Borneo’. In Peter Sercombe, Michael Boutin & Adrian Clynes (eds.) ''Advances in research on cultural and linguistic practices in Borneo,'' 123-151. Phillips, Maine USA: Borneo Research Council.</ref> West Coast Bajau has two different pronoun sets:<ref name="Miller 2007" />
* '''Set 1:''' non-subject actors
* '''Set 2:''' all other pronouns
In contrast, most of the languages of Sabah have three sets of pronouns:<ref name="Miller 2007" />
* '''Set 1:''' non-subject actors
* '''Set 2:''' subjects
* '''Set 3:''' non-subject, non-actors
In West Coast Bajau, the non-subject undergoer can be optionally realised using both the Set 1 and the Set 2 pronouns.<ref name="Miller 2007" />

[[Zero anaphora]] is possible for highly topical arguments, except the UV actor, which cannot be deleted.<ref name="Miller 2007" /> This is common across Western Austronesian languages.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Himmelmann |first=Nikolaus |date=1999 |title=The Lack of Zero Anaphora and Incipient Person Marking in Tagalog |journal=Oceanic Linguistics |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=231–269 |doi=10.1353/ol.1999.0010}}</ref>

=== Word order ===
Like the languages of the Philippines, the Sama–Bajaw languages in the Sulu tend to be [[Verb-initial word order|verb-initial]].<ref name=":0" /> However, in most languages word order is flexible and depends on the voice construction. In the Sulu, [[Subject–verb–object word order|SVO]] is only found in the context of preposed [[Affirmative and negative|negatives]] and [[Aspect (linguistics)|aspect markers]]. In West Coast Bajau, on the other hand, SVO word-order is also found in pragmatically neutral contexts.<ref name=":0" /> This, again, makes West Coast Bajau more similar to the languages of Sarawak than the other languages of the Sama-Bajaw group.

Verheijen (1986) suggests that the Bajau language spoken in the [[Lesser Sunda Islands]] has no fixed position of the subject but is fixed VO. The language has several properties that are said to correlate with VO word-order:<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Sama/Bajau Language in the Lesser Sunda Islands|last = Verheijen|first = Jilis|publisher = Pacific Linguistics|year = 1986}}</ref> 
* Prepositions
* Noun‑Genitive
* Noun-Relative
* Noun-Adjective
* Noun-Demonstrative
* Preverbal negatives
* Initial subordinators
The preferred word-orders for five Sama–Bajau languages are shown below. The word order is represented in terms of the semantic roles: actor (A) and undergoer (U).<ref name=":0" />
{| class="wikitable"
!
!AV word order
!Zero UV word order
!Affixed non-AV word order
|-
|Sama Bangingi'
|V A U
|
|
|-
|Central Sama
|V A U (if A = pronoun)
V U A (if A = full noun)
|V A U
|V U A or V A U
|-
|Southern Sama
|V A U (if A = pronoun)
V U A (if A = full noun)
|V A U
|V U A (V A U also possible)
|-
|Pangutaran Sama
|V A U
|V A U
|V A U or V U A
|-
|West Coast Bajau
|A V U
|V A U or U V A
|U V A (less often V A U)
|}
In all Sama–Bajau languages, the position of the actor is fixed, directly following the verb in the zero UV construction. Elsewhere, the order of actor and undergoer depends on the [[animacy]] of the arguments.<ref name=":0" /> This could be seen to follow the Philippine tendency to place actors first in the clause.<ref>Billings, Loren. 2005. Ordering clitics and postverbal R-expressions in Tagalog: a unified  analysis? In Andrew Carnie, Heidi Harley & Sheila Ann Dooley (eds.) ''Verb First: on the syntax of verb-initial languages'', 303-339. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.</ref>

If we rephrase these orders in terms of grammatical function, a number of Sama–Bajau languages could be said to be VOS languages. S is equivalent to the actor in AV and the undergoer in UV. O is equivalent to the non-subject core argument.

==== Word order and information structure ====
Variant word-orders are permitted in Sama–Bajau languages. The different word-orders have different [[information structure]] interpretations. This differs depending on the voice of the clause.

Miller (2007) suggests that verb-initial order in West Coast Bajau UV clauses strongly correlates with foregrounding.<ref name="Miller 2007" /> He argues that this is the basic word order given that the undergoer in final position does not have a specific pragmatic status. In contrast, fronted undergoers are highly active and accessible.<ref name="Miller 2007" /> Both SVO and [[Verb–object–subject word order|VOS]] orders occur with equal frequency in narrative texts, though VOS is highly preferred in foregrounded clauses.<ref name="Miller 2007" />

AV clauses are predominantly subject-initial regardless of grounding.<ref name="Miller 2007" /> In fact, SVO is the only word-order permitted in subordinate clauses. Where verb-initial clauses in AV do occur, however, they typically represent key sequences of action in the storyline.<ref name="Miller 2007" />

There are also [[Specificity (linguistics)|specificity]] effects in AV verb-initial word order. VOS is acceptable when the non-subject undergoer is non-specific, but sometimes considered unacceptable if the undergoer is specific.<ref name="Miller 2007" /> The same is true for [[Definiteness|definite]] undergoers.<ref name="Miller 2007" /> However, the effects are not found when the word-order is [[Verb–subject–object word order|VSO]] and the undergoer is in final position. In this case, the structure is grammatical regardless of whether the undergoer is definite/specific or not.

==== Topic and focus ====
In West Coast Bajau, it is possible for subjects, obliques and adjuncts to appear pre-verbally. Only non-subject arguments cannot appear in this position. Miller (2007: 193) suggests that there are two positions pre-verbally: [[Topic (linguistics)|topic]] and [[Focus (linguistics)|focus]]. Topic represents presupposed information whilst focus represents new information. In both AV and UV clauses, the preverbal subjects can be either topic or focus. Obliques, on the other hand, are always focus.

Consequently, Miller (2007: 211) analyses the clause structure of West Coast Bajau as follows:<ref name="Miller 2007" />

'''Pragmatic structure of West Coast Bajau'''
{| class="wikitable"
!FOCUS
!TOPIC
!PRED
|}
The preverbal focus position can be followed by focus particles such as ''no.''<ref name="Miller 2007" />

== Phonology ==
===Sinama===
[[File:Sinama Reading Poster.jpg|thumb|A reading poster for the Sinama language created by Kauman Sama Online for free use.]]
[[File:Sama woman making a traditional mat.JPG|thumb|This woman making a traditional mat is a Sama from Siasi who now lives in Semporna, Malaysia.]]Sinama languages have 21 to 24 [[phoneme]]s. All Sinama languages{{Specify|date=March 2023}} have 17 [[consonant]]s. Each language has from five to seven [[vowel]]s.{{Citation needed|date=March 2023}}

====Consonants====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+Consonants of Sibutu Sama<ref name=":0a">{{Cite book|last=Allison|first=E. Joseph|title=The phonology of Sibutu Sama: a language of the southern Philippines|publisher=Studies in Philippine Linguistics 3|year=1979}}</ref>
! colspan="2" |
![[Labial consonant|Labial]]
![[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
![[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
![[Velar consonant|Velar]]
![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
|{{IPA link|m}}
|{{IPA link|n}}
|{{IPA link|ɲ}}
|{{IPA link|ŋ}}
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Plosive]]
!<small>voiceless</small>
|{{IPA link|p}}
|{{IPA link|t}}
|
|{{IPA link|k}}
|{{IPA link|ʔ}}
|-
!<small>voiced</small>
|{{IPA link|b}}
|{{IPA link|d}}
|{{IPA link|dʒ}}
|{{IPA link|ɡ}}
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Fricative]]
|
|{{IPA link|s}}
|
|
|{{IPA link|h}}
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]
|
|{{IPA link|l}}
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Semivowel]]
|{{IPA link|w}}
|
|{{IPA link|j}}
|
|
|}

The consonants of the Sinama languages are represented by the letters b, d, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, ng, p, r, s, t, w, y and '.

Representation of the glottal stop in Sinama has not yet reached a consensus among Sinama speakers.  Linguists have suggested the use of an apostrophe-like character ({{Grapheme|'}}) for word final glottal stops. Central Sinama has adopted this for glottal stops in between vowels as well (i.e. {{Lang|sml|a'a}}, the Sinama word for 'human').  Other Sinama languages have chosen to follow Tagalog orthography and to leave this vowel medial glottal stop ambiguous.  Sinama speakers often spell the word final glottal stop with an h at the end.  Sinama speakers in Malaysia may also spell it with a {{Grapheme|k}} following the vowel softening patterns of [[Malay Language|Bahasa Melayu]].

In certain dialects of Sinama {{IPA|/b/}} becomes {{IPAblink|β}} and {{IPA|/ɡ/}} becomes {{IPAblink|ɣ}} when found between two vowels. Allophones of {{IPA|/d, s, l/}} are heard as [{{IPA link|ɾ}}, {{IPA link|ʃ}}, {{IPA link|ɭ}}].<ref name=":0a" />

====Vowels====
The vowels a, e, i, o, and u are found in all Sinama languages and dialects. In addition to these five vowels ə, and ɤ are found in one or more Sinama language.
{| class="wikitable"
!&nbsp;
! [[open back unrounded vowel|a]]
! [[close-mid front unrounded vowel|e]]
! [[close front unrounded vowel|i]]
! [[close-mid back rounded vowel|o]]
! [[close back rounded vowel|u]]
! [[mid-central vowel|ə]]
! [[close-mid back unrounded vowel|ɤ]]
|-
|Northern<ref>{{cite web |title=Bangingih Orthography Fact Sheet - Languages of the Philippines |url=http://www-01.sil.org/asia/philippines/mle/Bangingih_Orthography_Fact_Sheet.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150511224204/http://www-01.sil.org/asia/philippines/mle/Bangingih_Orthography_Fact_Sheet.pdf |archive-date=2015-05-11 |website=SIL Philippines}}</ref>
|a
|e
|i
|o
|u
|
|
|-
|Central<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sinama.org/bahasa-sinama/sama-alphabet/|title=Description of the Sinama Alphabet (Central Sinama)|work=Kauman Sama Online: Sinama Social Network for Sama & Bajau|access-date=9 May 2015}}</ref>
|a
|e
|i
|o
|u
|'
|
|-
|Southern<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-01.sil.org/asia/philippines/works-ssb-guide.html |title=Guide to Using the Sama Sibutu' - English Dictionary |website=SIL Philippines |author=K.J. Allison}}</ref>
|a
|e
|i
|o
|u
|
|
|-
|Pangutaran<ref>{{cite web |title=Sama Pangutaran Orthography Fact Sheet - Languages of the Philippines |url=http://www-01.sil.org/asia/philippines/mle/Sama_Pangutaran_Orthography_Fact_Sheet.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150511230711/http://www-01.sil.org/asia/philippines/mle/Sama_Pangutaran_Orthography_Fact_Sheet.pdf |archive-date=2015-05-11 |website=SIL Philippines}}</ref>
|a
|e
|i
|o
|u
|'
|ō
|-
|Jama Mapun<ref>{{cite web |title=Mapun Orthography Fact Sheet - Languages of the Philippines |url=http://www-01.sil.org/asia/philippines/mle/Mapun_Orthography_Fact_Sheet.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150511230521/http://www-01.sil.org/asia/philippines/mle/Mapun_Orthography_Fact_Sheet.pdf |archive-date=2015-05-11 |website=SIL Philippines}}</ref>
|a
|e
|i
|o
|u
|
|
|}

Allophones of {{IPA|/i, e, a, o, u/}} are heard as {{IPA|[ɪ, ɛ, ʌ, ɔ, ʊ]}}.

Many of the Sinama languages have contrastive vowel lengthening.  This is represented by a macron over the vowel ({{Grapheme|ā ē ī ō ū}}).

====Stress====
Sinama pronunciation is quite distinct from other nearby languages such as [[Tausug language|Tausug]] and [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] in that all of the Sinama languages primary stress occurs on the penultimate syllable of the word.<ref name="Pallesen1985"/>{{rp|124}}  Stress will remain on the penultimate syllable even with the addition of suffixes including enclitic pronouns.  In Northern Sinama (Balanguingi') the stress will shift to the ultima when the penult is the mid central vowel {{IPA|/ə/}}.

====Enclitic pronouns====
The 1st, 2nd, and 3rd singular pronouns ''-ku'', ''-nu'' and ''-na'' respectively, the 1st plural inclusive pronouns ''-ta'' and ''-tam'', as well as the 2nd plural pronoun ''-bi'' are all enclitics.<ref>{{cite web|title=Hurupan Sama Bahagiꞌ 1: Angay sinugpat saga pronoun ni kabtangan ma bihingna?|url=http://sinama.org/2012/08/hurupan-sama-bahagi%EA%9E%8C-1-vowel-karuwa-min-katapusan-kabtangan/|website=Kauman Sama Online: Sinama Social Network for Sama & Bajau|access-date=18 November 2014}}</ref> These enclitic pronouns change the pronunciation by shifting the stress of a word through the addition of a syllable; a verb or noun combined with a suffixed one syllable enclitic pronoun.  Some Sinama orthographies represent this by writing both noun/verb and pronoun as one word e.g. {{Lang|sml|luma'ta}} for 'our house' in Central Sinama.  Other orthographies represent this with a hypen e.g. {{Lang|ssb|luma'-ta}} for 'our house' in Southern Sinama.  Still others write this keeping the noun/verb separate from the prounoun e.g. ''luma' ta''<!-- needs language template --> for 'our house' in Northern Sinama.

===West Coast Bajau===

==== Consonants ====
The following are the sounds of West Coast Bajau:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2" |
![[Labial consonant|Labial]]
![[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
![[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
![[Velar consonant|Velar]]
![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
|{{IPA link|m}}
|{{IPA link|n}}
|{{IPA link|ɲ}}
|{{IPA link|ŋ}}
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Plosive]]
!<small>voiceless</small>
|{{IPA link|p}}
|{{IPA link|t}}
|
|{{IPA link|k}}
|{{IPA link|ʔ}}
|-
!<small>voiced</small>
|{{IPA link|b}}
|{{IPA link|d}}
|{{IPA link|dʒ}}
|{{IPA link|ɡ}}
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Fricative]]
|
|{{IPA link|s}}
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Rhotic consonant|Rhotic]]
|
|{{IPA link|r}}
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]
|
|{{IPA link|l}}
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Semivowel]]
|{{IPA link|w}}
|
|{{IPA link|j}}
|
|
|}

* Stop sounds {{IPA|/p t k/}} when in word-final position are heard as unreleased {{IPA|[p̚ t̚ k̚]}}, as is the case with the voiced stop sounds {{IPA|/b d ɡ/}} as {{IPA|[b̚ d̚ ɡ̚]}}.
* {{IPA|/l/}} can be heard as a retroflex lateral {{IPAblink|ɭ}} in word-final position.
* {{IPA|/r/}} can be heard as a flap {{IPAblink|ɾ}} when in intervocalic position.

==== Vowels ====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
!
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
![[Central vowel|Central]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
|{{IPA link|i}}
|
|{{IPA link|u}}
|-
![[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
|{{IPA link|e}}
|
|{{IPA link|o}}
|-
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]
|
|{{IPA link|ə}}
|
|-
![[Open vowel|Open]]
|
|{{IPA link|a}}
|
|}
The vowel sounds {{IPA|/i u e/}} are heard as {{IPA|[ɪ ʊ ɛ]}} within closed syllables.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Miller|first=Mark T.|title=A Grammar of West Coast Bajau|publisher=University of Texas Arlington|year=2007}}</ref>

==Reconstruction==
Proto-Sama-Bajaw is reconstructed in Pallesen (1985). Pallesen (1985) considers the homeland of Proto-Sama-Bajaw to be in the [[Basilan Strait]] area, around 800 AD.

==Cultural references==
The lyrics of the song called ''[[Kiriring Pakiriring]]'' (popularly known as ''Dayang Dayang'') were written in the Simunul dialect of the Southern Sinama language.

Central Sinama and Southern Sinama are two of six languages used in the 2012 Filipino drama film ''[[Thy Womb]]''.

Sinama is featured on the 1991 edition of the [[Philippine one thousand peso bill]].  ''Langgal<!-- needs language template -->'' is written under a picture of a Sama place of worship.  ''Langgal<!-- needs language template -->'' is the Sinama for that place of worship.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
*Blench, Roger. 2016. [https://www.academia.edu/25632266/The_linguistic_background_to_SE_Asian_sea_nomadism The linguistic background to SE Asian sea nomadism]. In ''Sea nomads of SE Asia past and present''. Bérénice Bellina, Roger M. Blench & Jean-Christophe Galipaud eds. Singapore: NUS Press.
*Pallesen, A. Kemp. 1985. Culture contact and language convergence. Philippine journal of linguistics: special monograph issue, 24. Manila: Linguistic Society of the Philippines.
* {{Citation |last1=Mead |first1=David |last2=Lee |first2=Myung-young |title=Mapping Indonesian Bajau Communities in Sulawesi |date=2007 |url=https://www.sil.org/resources/publications/entry/9005 |series=SIL Electronic Survey Reports 2007-019 |publisher=SIL International }}
* {{Cite thesis |last=Miller |first=Mark Turner |title=A Grammar of West Coast Bajau |date=2007 |degree=Ph.D. |publisher=University of Texas at Arlington |hdl=10106/577 |hdl-access=free }}
* Pallesen, A. Kemp. 1985. ''Culture contact and language convergence''. Philippine journal of linguistics: special monograph issue, 24. Manila: Linguistic Society of the Philippines.
* {{Citation |last=Youngman |first=Scott |title=Summary of Bajau Lexicostatistics Project (through October 1989) |date=2005 |url=https://www.sil.org/resources/publications/entry/9175 |publisher=SIL International }} (word lists of 16 Indonesian Bajau varieties spoken in Sulawesi)

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}
*{{Cite JIPA|author=Archangeli, Diana and Yip, Jonathan and Yiu, Suki|title=Indonesian Bajau (East Lombok)|volume=51|issue=2|pages=314&ndash;332|doi=10.1017/S0025100319000239|printdate=2021-08|soundfiles=yes}}
*{{Cite JIPA|author=Pallesen, A. Kemp and Soderberg, Craig|title=Central Sama|volume=42|issue=3|pages=353&ndash;359|doi=10.1017/S0025100312000229|printdate=2012-12|soundfiles=yes}}
{{refend}}

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