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{{Short description|New Imperial colonisation of Africa by Europeans}}
{{About||information on the colonisation of Africa prior to the 1880s, including Carthaginian and early European colonisation|Colonisation of Africa|the book by [[Thomas Pakenham (historian)|Thomas Pakenham]]|The Scramble for Africa (book)}}
{{Use British English|date=November 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2023}}
{{Multiple image
 |total_width=350px
 |image1=African-civilizations-map-pre-colonial.svg
 |caption1= Major [[List of kingdoms in Africa throughout history|pre-colonial states in Africa]] (excluding East African states such as [[Ajuran Sultanate|Ajuran]], [[Adal Sultanate|Adal]], [[Kingdom of Buganda|Buganda]], [[Kingdom of Rwanda|Rwanda]], [[Kilwa Sultanate|Kilwa]], and [[Merina Kingdom|Imerina]], and southern African ones: [[Kingdom of Mapungubwe|Mapungubwe]], [[Rozvi Empire|Rozvi]], [[Maravi]], [[Uukwanyama]], and [[Mthwakazi]]) 
 |image2= Africa map 1914.svg
 |caption2=Areas of Africa controlled by [[history of colonialism|Western European colonial powers]] in 1913: [[Belgian colonial empire|Belgian]] (orange), [[British Empire#Cape to Cairo|British]] (pink), [[French colonial empire|French]] (purple), [[German colonial empire|German]] (blue), [[Italian Empire|Italian]] (lime green), [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] (dark green), and [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] (yellow) empires
}}
[[File:Colonial Africa 1913 map.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Areas of Africa controlled by [[Western European]] colonial empires in 1913, shown with current national boundaries
{{Legend|#f7fab2|[[Belgian colonial empire|Belgium]]}}
{{Legend|#b6e3fc|[[French colonial empire|France]]}}
{{Legend|#bbfdd9|[[German colonial empire|Germany]]}}
{{Legend|#d2f89b|[[Italian Empire|Italy]]}}
{{Legend|#c0a6f2|[[Portuguese Empire|Portugal]]}}
{{Legend|#eaaff7|[[Spanish Empire|Spain]]}}
{{Legend|#fbc5c0|[[British Empire|United Kingdom]]}}
{{Legend|#f6f6f6|Independent}}]]

The '''Scramble for Africa'''{{Efn|Also known as the '''Partition of Africa''', the '''Conquest of Africa''', or the '''Rape of Africa'''.}} was the conquest and [[colonialism|colonisation]] of most of [[Africa]] by seven [[Western European]] powers driven by the [[Second Industrial Revolution]] during the era of "[[New Imperialism]]" (1833–1914): [[Belgium]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[United Kingdom]], [[Italy]], [[Portugal]] and [[Spain]].

In 1870, 10% of the continent was formally under European control. By 1914, this figure had risen to almost 90%, with only [[Liberia]] and [[Ethiopian Empire|Ethiopia]] retaining sovereignty, along with [[Egba United Government|Egba]],{{Efn|The [[Egba United Government]], a government of the [[Egba people]], was legally recognised by the British as independent until being annexed into the [[Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria]] in 1914.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Daly |first1=Samuel Fury Childs |title=From Crime to Coercion: Policing Dissent in Abeokuta, Nigeria, 1900–1940 |journal=The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History |date=4 May 2019 |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=474–489 |doi=10.1080/03086534.2019.1576833 |s2cid=159124664 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03086534.2019.1576833 |issn=0308-6534}}</ref>}} [[Senusiyya]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Hadaway |first=Stuart |title=Pyramids and Fleshpots: The Egyptian, Senussi and Eastern Mediterranean Campaigns (1914-1916) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yFGpBAAAQBAJ&dq=senussi+campaign&pg=PA15 |year=2014|publisher=The History Press |isbn=978-0-7509-5808-0 }}</ref> [[Mbunda Kingdom|Mbunda]],<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUgwAQAAIAAJ|title=The history and cultural life of the Mbunda speaking peoples|last=Association|first=Cheke Cultural Writers|date=1994|publisher=The Association|isbn=9789982030069|language=en|chapter=Chapter 14: The Kolongongo War Against the Portuguese}}</ref> and the [[Ovambo people#History|Ovambo kingdoms]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Williams |first=Frieda-Nela |url=https://www.namibiadigitalrepository.com/files/original/e98ba4fc1c8f59083fee9dc64a32083e.pdf |title=Precolonial Communities of Southwestern Africa: A history of Owambo Kingdoms 1600-1920 |publisher=National Archives of Namibia |year=1991 |access-date=2024-03-07 |archive-date=2024-03-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240307225349/https://www.namibiadigitalrepository.com/files/original/e98ba4fc1c8f59083fee9dc64a32083e.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Fokkens |first=Andries |title=The ovamboland expedition of 1917: the deposing of King Mandume |journal=Small Wars & Insurgencies |volume=34 |issue=2 |year=2023 |pages=382–421 |doi=10.1080/09592318.2022.2153468 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09592318.2022.2153468}}</ref> which were later conquered.

The 1884 [[Berlin Conference]] regulated [[European colonisation]] and trade in Africa, and is seen as emblematic of the "scramble".{{Sfn|Brantlinger|1985|pages=166–203}} In the last quarter of the 19th century, there were considerable political rivalries between the [[Colonial empire|European empires]], which provided the impetus for the colonisation.{{Sfn|Robinson|Gallagher|Denny|1961|p=175}} The later years of the 19th century saw a transition from "[[informal imperialism]]" – military influence and economic dominance – to direct rule.{{sfn|Shillington|2005|p=301}}

With the decline of the European colonial empires in the wake of the two world wars, most African colonies [[Decolonisation of Africa|gained independence]] during the [[Cold War]], and decided to keep their colonial borders in the [[Organisation of African Unity]] conference of 1964 due to fears of civil wars and regional instability, placing emphasis on [[pan-Africanism]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Touval |first=Saadia |title=The Organization of African Unity and African Borders |journal=International Organization |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=102–127 |date=1967 |doi=10.1017/S0020818300013151 |jstor=2705705 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2705705}}</ref>

== Background ==
{{Campaignbox Exploration of Africa}}
{{Campaignbox Scramble for Africa}}
{{New Imperialism}}

By 1841, businessmen from Europe had established small trading posts along the coasts of Africa, but they seldom moved inland, preferring to stay near the sea. They primarily traded with locals. Large parts of the continent were essentially uninhabitable for Europeans because of their high mortality rates from [[tropical disease]]s such as [[malaria]].{{Sfn|Pakenham|1991|loc=ch 1}} In the middle of the 19th century, European explorers mapped much of [[East Africa]] and [[Central Africa]].

As late as the 1870s, Europeans controlled approximately 10% of the African continent, with all their territories located near the coasts. The most important holdings were [[Portuguese Angola|Angola]] and [[Portuguese Mozambique|Mozambique]], held by [[Portugal]]; the [[Cape Colony]], held by the [[United Kingdom]]; and [[French Algeria|Algeria]], held by [[France]]. By 1914, only [[Ethiopia]] and [[Liberia]] remained outside European control, with the former eventually being occupied by [[Italy]] in 1936 while the latter having strong connections with its historical colonizer, the [[United States]].<ref>Compare: {{cite book |last=Killingray |first=David |year=1998 |chapter=7: The War in Africa |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CbYoAwAAQBAJ |quote=In 1914 the only independent states in Africa were Liberia and Abyssinia. |editor-last=Strachan |editor-first=Hew |editor-link=Hew Strachan |title=The Oxford Illustrated History of the First World War: New Edition |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford |edition=2nd |publication-date=2014 |page=101 |access-date=2017-02-21 |isbn=978-0-19-164040-7}}</ref>

Technological advances facilitated European expansion overseas. [[Industrial Revolution|Industrialization]] brought about rapid advancements in transportation and communication, especially in the forms of steamships, railways and telegraphs. Medical advances also played an important role, especially medicines for tropical diseases, which helped control their adverse effects. The development of [[quinine]], an effective treatment for malaria, made vast expanses of the tropics more accessible for Europeans.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://broughttolife.sciencemuseum.org.uk/broughttolife/techniques/quinine|title=Quinine|website=broughttolife.sciencemuseum.org.uk|access-date=2019-12-18|archive-date=2020-02-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216122141/http://broughttolife.sciencemuseum.org.uk/broughttolife/techniques/quinine|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Causes==

===Africa and global markets===
[[Sub-Saharan Africa]], one of the last regions of the world largely untouched by "informal imperialism", was attractive to business entrepreneurs. During a time when Britain's [[balance of trade]] showed a growing deficit, with shrinking and increasingly [[Protectionism|protectionist]] continental markets during the [[Long Depression]] (1873–1896), Africa offered Britain, Germany, France, and other countries an open market that would garner them a trade surplus: a market that bought more from the colonial power than it sold overall.{{sfn|Shillington|2005|p=301}}<ref>{{Cite journal |first1=Ewout |last1=Frankema |author-link2=Jeffrey G. Williamson |first2=Jeffrey |last2=Williamson |first3=Pieter |last3=Woltjer |author-link3=Pieter Woltjer |title=An Economic Rationale for the West African Scramble? The Commercial Transition and the Commodity Price Boom of 1835–1885 |journal=Journal of Economic History |volume=78 |issue=1 |date=2018 |pages=231–267|doi=10.1017/S0022050718000128 |url=https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/55912025/Scramble_for_Africa.pdf }}</ref>

Surplus capital was often more profitably invested overseas, where cheap materials, limited competition, and abundant raw materials made a greater premium possible. Another inducement for imperialism arose from the demand for raw materials, especially [[Ivory trade|ivory]], [[Natural rubber|rubber]], [[palm oil]], [[Cocoa bean|cocoa]], [[Diamond (gemstone)|diamonds]], [[tea]], and [[tin]]. Additionally, Britain wanted control of areas of the southern and eastern coasts of Africa for stopover ports on the route to Asia and its [[Presidencies and provinces of British India|empire in India]].<ref>{{Cite book |first=Lynn |author-link=Lynn Hunt |last=Hunt |title=The Making of the West |volume=C |location=Bedford |publisher=St. Martin |date=2005}}</ref> But, excluding the area that became the [[Union of South Africa]] in 1910, European nations invested relatively limited amounts of capital in Africa.

Pro-imperialist colonial lobbyists such as the ''[[Pan-German League|Alldeutscher Verband]]'', [[Francesco Crispi]] and [[Jules Ferry]], argued that sheltered overseas markets in Africa would solve the problems of low prices and [[overproduction]] caused by shrinking continental markets. [[J. A. Hobson|John A. Hobson]] argued in ''[[Imperialism (Hobson book)|Imperialism]]'' that this shrinking of continental markets was a key factor of the global "New Imperialism" period.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hobson |first=John Atkinson |title=Imperialism |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge |date=2011 |page=77 |isbn=978-0-511-79207-6 |oclc=889962491}}</ref> [[William Easterly]], however, disagrees with the link made between [[capitalism]] and [[imperialism]], arguing that [[colonialism]] is used mostly to promote state-led development rather than corporate development. He has said that "imperialism is not so clearly linked to capitalism and the free markets... historically there has been a closer link between colonialism/imperialism and state-led approaches to development."<ref>{{cite web|last=Easterly|first=William|title=The Imperial Origins of State-Led Development|url=http://aidwatchers.com/2009/09/the-imperial-origins-of-state-led-development/|date=September 17, 2009|publisher=New York University Blogs|access-date=2009-09-23|archive-date=2016-02-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205113614/http://aidwatchers.com/2009/09/the-imperial-origins-of-state-led-development/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Strategic rivalry===
[[File:LeCommandantMarchand.jpg|thumb|Contemporary French propaganda poster hailing Major [[Jean-Baptiste Marchand|Marchand]]'s [[Fashoda Incident|trek across Africa toward Fashoda]] in 1898]]

While tropical Africa was not a large zone of investment, other overseas regions were. The vast interior between Egypt and the gold and diamond-rich [[Southern Africa]] had strategic value in securing the flow of overseas trade. Britain was under political pressure to build up lucrative markets in India, [[British Malaya|Malaya]], Australia and New Zealand. Thus, it wanted to secure the key waterway between East and West&nbsp;– the [[Suez Canal]], completed in 1869. However, a theory that Britain sought to annex East Africa during 1880 onwards, out of geo-strategic concerns connected to Egypt (especially the Suez Canal),<ref>{{cite book|last1=Langer|first1=William A|title=The Diplomacy of Imperialism, 1890–1902|last2=Bureau of International Research of Harvard University and Radcliffe College|publisher=Alfred A Knopf|year=1935|volume=1|location=New York and London}}</ref>{{Sfn|Robinson|Gallagher|Denny|1961|p=175}} has been challenged by historians such as [[John Darwin (historian)|John Darwin]] (1997) and Jonas F. Gjersø (2015).<ref>Darwin, John. "Imperialism and the Victorians: The dynamics of territorial expansion." ''English Historical Review'' (1997) 112#447 pp. 614–42. http://ehr.oxfordjournals.org/content/CXII/447/614.full.pdf+html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114114902/http://ehr.oxfordjournals.org/content/CXII/447/614.full.pdf+html |date=2012-01-14 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Gjersø |first=Jonas Fossli |title=The Scramble for East Africa: British Motives Reconsidered, 1884–95 |journal= Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History |volume=43 |issue=5 |pages=831–860 |date=2015 |s2cid=143514840 |doi=10.1080/03086534.2015.1026131 |doi-access=free}}</ref><!-- What do they say in contrast? -->

The scramble for African territory also reflected concern for the acquisition of military and naval bases, for strategic purposes and the exercise of power. The growing navies, and new ships driven by steam power, required coaling stations and ports for maintenance. Defence bases were also needed for the protection of sea routes and communication lines, particularly of expensive and vital international waterways such as the Suez Canal.<ref name="autogenerated1982">H.R. Cowie, ''Imperialism and Race Relations''. Revised edition, Nelson Publishing, Vol. 5, 1982.</ref>

Colonies were seen as assets in [[Balance of power (international relations)|balance of power]] negotiations, useful as items of exchange at times of international bargaining. Colonies with large native populations were also a source of military power; Britain and France used large numbers of [[Sepoy#Sepoys in British India|British Indian]] and North African soldiers, respectively, in many of their colonial wars (and would do so again in the coming World Wars). In the age of [[nationalism]] there was pressure for a nation to acquire an empire as a status symbol; the idea of "greatness" became linked with the "[[The White Man's Burden|White Man's Burden]]", or sense of duty, underlying many nations' strategies.<ref name="autogenerated1982" />

In the early 1880s, [[Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza]] was exploring the region along the [[Congo River]] for France, at the same time [[Henry Morton Stanley]] explored it on behalf of the [[Committee for Studies of the Upper Congo]], backed by [[Leopold II of Belgium]], who would have it as his personal [[Congo Free State]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=King Leopold's Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror, and Heroism in Colonial Africa.|last=Hochschild|first=Adam|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|isbn=0-358-21250-2|location=New York|pages=281|oclc=1105149367}}</ref> Leopold had earlier hoped to recruit Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza, but turned to Henry Morton Stanley when the latter was recruited by the French government. France occupied Tunisia in May 1881, which may have convinced Italy to join the German-Austrian [[Dual Alliance (1879)|Dual Alliance]] in 1882, thus forming the [[Triple Alliance (1882)|Triple Alliance]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=International Relations|last=Khanna|first=V. N.|publisher=Vikas Publishing House|year=2013|isbn=9789325968363|edition=5th|location=India|pages=55}}</ref> The same year, Britain occupied Egypt (hitherto an autonomous state owing nominal [[fealty]] to the [[Ottoman Empire]]), which ruled over Sudan and parts of Chad, Eritrea, and Somalia. In 1884, Germany declared [[Togoland]], the Cameroons and [[South West Africa]] to be under its protection;<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fsmitha.com/h3/h50imp.htm|title=Africa and Empire in the 1880s and '90s|last=Smitha|first=Frank E.|website=www.fsmitha.com|access-date=2019-12-19}}</ref> and France occupied Guinea. [[French West Africa]] was founded in 1895 and [[French Equatorial Africa]] in 1910.{{Sfn|Pakenham|1991}}<ref>Robert Aldrich, ''Greater France: A history of French overseas expansion'' (1996).</ref> In [[French Somaliland]], a short-lived [[Russian Empire|Russian]] colony in the [[Khedivate of Egypt|Egyptian]] fort of [[Sagallo]] was briefly proclaimed by [[Terek Cossacks]] in 1889.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Borrero|first=Mauricio|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dhm0cGdrTOIC|title=Russia: A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present|date=2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-7475-4|pages=69–70|language=en}}</ref>[[File:Preaching from a Waggon (David Livingstone) by The London Missionary Society.jpg|thumb|left|[[David Livingstone]], early explorer of the interior of Africa and fighter against the [[African slave trade|slave trade]]]]

====Germany's ''Weltpolitik''====
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 105-DOA6364, Deutsch-Ostafrika, Polizeiaskaris.jpg|thumb|The [[Askari]] colonial troops in [[German East Africa]], c. 1906]]

Germany, divided into [[Holy Roman Empire|small states]], was not initially a colonial power. In 1862, [[Otto von Bismarck]] became Minister-President of the [[Kingdom of Prussia]], and through a series of wars with both [[Austro-Prussian War|Austria in 1866]] and [[Franco-Prussian War|France in 1870]] was able to unify all of Germany under Prussian rule. The [[German Empire]] was formally proclaimed on 18 January 1871. At first, Bismarck disliked colonies but gave in to popular and elite pressure in the 1880s. He sponsored the 1884–85 [[Berlin Conference]], which set the rules of effective control of African territories and reduced the risk of conflict between colonial powers.<ref>George Shepperson, "The centennial of the West African conference of Berlin, 1884-1885." Phylon 46.1 (1985): 37-48 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/274944 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191021013746/https://www.jstor.org/stable/274944 |date=2019-10-21 }}.</ref> Bismarck used private companies to set up small colonial operations in Africa and the Pacific.

[[Pan-Germanism]] became linked to the young nation's new imperialist drives.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The origins of totalitarianism|last=Arendt|first=Hannah|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|year=1973|isbn=9780156701532|edition=New|location=New York|pages=222|oclc=614421}}</ref> In the beginning of the 1880s, the ''Deutscher Kolonialverein'' was created, and published the ''Kolonialzeitung''. This colonial lobby was also relayed by the nationalist ''[[Alldeutscher Verband]]''. ''[[Weltpolitik]]'' (world policy) was the foreign policy adopted by Kaiser [[Wilhelm II, German Emperor|Wilhelm II]] in 1890, intending to transform Germany into a global power through aggressive diplomacy, and the development of a large navy.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kitson |first=Alison |title=Germany, 1858-1990: Hope, Terror, and Revival |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |date=2001 |pages=64 |isbn=0-19-913417-0 |oclc=47209403}}</ref> Germany became the third-largest colonial power in Africa, the location of most of its 2.6 million square kilometres of colonial territory and 14 million colonial subjects in 1914. The African possessions were Southwest Africa, Togoland, the Cameroons, and Tanganyika.  Germany tried to isolate France in 1905 with the [[First Moroccan Crisis]]. This led to the 1905 [[Algeciras Conference]], in which France's influence on Morocco was compensated by the exchange of other territories, and then to the [[Agadir Crisis]] in 1911.

====Italy's expansion====
[[File:Zaptié, Arabien.jpg|thumb|An Italian [[Carabiniere]] and a Libyan colonial [[Zaptié]] patrolling in Tripoli, [[Italian Tripolitania]], 1914]]

After fighting alongside France during the [[Crimean War]] (1853–1856), the [[Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)|Kingdom of Sardinia]] sought to unify the Italian peninsula, with French support. Following a [[Second Italian War of Independence|war with Austria in 1859]], Sardinia, under the leadership of [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]], was able to unify most of the peninsula by 1861, establishing the [[Kingdom of Italy]]. Following unification, Italy sought to expand its territory and become a great power, [[Italian Eritrea|taking possession]] of parts of [[Eritrea]] in 1870<ref>{{cite book |last=Ullendorff |first=Edward |author-link=Edward Ullendorff |title=The Ethiopians: An Introduction to Country and People |url=https://archive.org/details/ethiopiansintrod0000ulle/page/90/mode/2up?view=theater |url-access=registration |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=London |edition=second |year=1965 |pages=90 |isbn=0-19-285061-X}}</ref><ref>{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Eritrea|volume=9|page=747}}</ref> and 1882. In 1889–90, it occupied territory on the south side of the Horn of Africa, forming what would become [[Italian Somaliland]].{{Sfn|Pakenham|1991|p=281}} In the disorder that followed the 1889 death of Emperor [[Yohannes IV]], General [[Oreste Baratieri]] occupied the [[Ethiopian Highlands]] along the Eritrean coast, and Italy proclaimed the establishment of a new colony of Eritrea, with its capital moved from [[Massawa]] to [[Asmara]]. When relations between Italy and Ethiopia deteriorated, the [[First Italo-Ethiopian War]] broke out in 1895; Italian troops were defeated as the Ethiopians had numerical superiority, better organization, and support from Russia and France.<ref>{{cite book |first=Micheal |last=Clodfelter |title=Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures |edition= 4th |publisher=McFarland |year=2017|page=202}}</ref> In 1911, Italy engaged in a [[Italo-Turkish War|war with the Ottoman Empire]], in which it acquired [[Italian Tripolitania|Tripolitania]] and [[Italian Cyrenaica|Cyrenaica]], that together formed what became known as [[Italian Libya]]. In 1919 [[Enrico Corradini]] developed the concept of ''Proletarian Nationalism'', which was supposed to legitimise Italy's imperialism by a mixture of socialism with nationalism:

{{Blockquote|We must start by recognizing the fact that there are proletarian nations as well as proletarian classes; that is to say, there are nations whose living conditions are subject...to the way of life of other nations, just as classes are. Once this is realised, nationalism must insist firmly on this truth: Italy is, materially and morally, a proletarian nation.<ref>[[Enrico Corradini]], ''Report to the First Nationalist Congress'', Florence, 3 December 1919.</ref>}}

The [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War]] (1935–1936), ordered by the [[Fascism|fascist]] dictator [[Benito Mussolini]], was the last colonial war (that is, intended to colonise a country, as opposed to [[wars of national liberation]]),<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Shank|first=Ian|date=2017-10-01|title=From Home to Port: Italian Soldiers' Perspectives on the Opening Stage of the Ethiopian Campaign|journal=The Virginia Tech Undergraduate Historical Review|volume=6|doi=10.21061/vtuhr.v6i0.6|issn=2165-9915|doi-access=free|hdl=10919/90259|hdl-access=free}}</ref> occupying [[Ethiopia]]—which had remained the last independent African territory, apart from Liberia. [[Italian Ethiopia]] was occupied by fascist Italian forces in World War II as part of [[Italian East Africa]] though much of the mountainous countryside had remained out of Italian control due to resistance from the [[Arbegnoch]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Del Boca |first=Angelo |title=The Ethiopian War 1935–1941 |publisher=Chicago: The University of Chicago Press |year=1969 |isbn=978-0-226-14217-3}}</ref> The occupation is an example of the expansionist policy that characterized the [[Axis powers]] as opposed to the Scramble for Africa.

==History and characteristics==

===Colonization before World War I===

====Congo====
[[File:Henry Morton Stanley.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Henry Morton Stanley]]]]

[[David Livingstone]]'s explorations, carried on by [[Henry Morton Stanley]], excited imaginations with Stanley's grandiose ideas for colonisation; but these found little support owing to the problems and scale of action required, except from Leopold II of Belgium, who in 1876 had organised the [[International African Association]]. From 1869 to 1874, Stanley was secretly sent by Leopold II to the [[Congo Basin|Congo]] region, where he made treaties with several African chiefs along the [[Congo River]] and by 1882 had sufficient territory to form the basis of the [[Congo Free State]].

[[File:Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza]] in his version of the "native" dress, photographed by [[Félix Nadar]]]]
While [[Henry Morton Stanley's first trans-Africa expedition|Stanley was exploring the Congo]] on behalf of Leopold II of Belgium, the Franco-Italian marine officer Pierre de Brazza travelled into the western Congo Basin and raised the French flag over the newly founded [[Brazzaville]] in 1881, thus occupying today's [[Republic of the Congo]].<ref name=":0" /> Portugal, which also claimed the area because of old treaties with the Kingdom of Kongo, made a treaty with Britain on 26 February 1884 to block off Leopold's access to the Atlantic.

By 1890 the [[Congo Free State]] had consolidated control of its territory between [[Kinshasa|Leopoldville]] and [[Kisangani|Stanleyville]] and was looking to push south down the [[Lualaba River]] from Stanleyville. At the same time, the [[British South Africa Company]] of [[Cecil Rhodes]] was expanding north from the [[Limpopo River]], sending the [[Pioneer Column]] (guided by [[Frederick Selous]]) through [[Matabeleland]], and starting a colony in [[Mashonaland]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Pioneers, settlers, aliens, exiles : the decolonisation of white identity in Zimbabwe|url=https://archive.org/details/pioneerssettlers00fish|url-access=limited|last=Fisher|first=Josephine Lucy|date=2010|publisher=ANU E Press|isbn=978-1-921666-15-5|location=Canberra|pages=[https://archive.org/details/pioneerssettlers00fish/page/n32 1]|oclc=513442095}}</ref>

[[Tippu Tip]], a Zanzibari Arab based in the [[Sultanate of Zanzibar]], also played a major role as a "protector of European explorers", ivory trader and slave trader. Having established a trading empire within Zanzibar and neighbouring areas in East Africa, Tippu Tip would shift his alignment towards the rising colonial powers in the region and at the proposal of Henry Morton Stanley, Tippu Tip became a governor of the "[[Stanley Falls District]]" ([[Boyoma Falls]]) in Leopold's Congo Free State, before being involved in the [[Congo–Arab War]] against Leopold II's colonial state.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tippu Tip: Ivory, Slavery and Discovery in the Scramble for Africa  |url=https://www.soas.ac.uk/cas/events/19mar2018-tippu-tip-ivory-slavery-and-discovery-in-the-scramble-for-africa.html |access-date=2022-03-08 |website=SOAS University of London |archive-date=8 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220308030806/https://www.soas.ac.uk/cas/events/19mar2018-tippu-tip-ivory-slavery-and-discovery-in-the-scramble-for-africa.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Laing |first=Stuart |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/972386771 |publisher=Medina Publishing |title=Tippu Tip: ivory, slavery and discovery in the scramble for Africa |date=2017 |isbn=978-1-911487-05-0 |location=Surbiton, Surrey |oclc=972386771}}</ref>

To the west, in the land where their expansions would meet, was [[Katanga Province|Katanga]], the site of the [[Yeke Kingdom]] of [[Msiri]]. Msiri was the most militarily powerful ruler in the area and traded large quantities of copper, ivory and slaves—and rumours of gold reached European ears.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Francis|first=J.|date=1893|title=The Athenæum: A Journal of Literature, Science, the Fine Arts, Music, and the Drama|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6bs5AQAAIAAJ&q=The+Athen%C3%A6um:+A+Journal+of+Literature,+Science,+the+Fine+Arts,+Music,+and+the+Drama,+Volume+2|journal=The Athenæum|volume=2|pages=281}}</ref> The scramble for Katanga was a prime example of the period. Rhodes sent two expeditions to Msiri in 1890 led by [[Alfred Sharpe]], who was rebuffed, and [[Joseph Thomson (explorer)|Joseph Thomson]], who failed to reach Katanga. Leopold sent four expeditions. First, the [[Paul Le Marinel|Le Marinel expedition]] could only extract a vaguely worded letter. The [[Alexandre Delcommune|Delcommune expedition]] was rebuffed. The well-armed [[Stairs Expedition to Katanga|Stairs expedition]] was given orders to take Katanga with or without Msiri's consent. Msiri refused, was shot, and his head was cut off and stuck on a pole as a "barbaric lesson" to the people.<ref>{{cite book|title=Zambia 1890-1964: The Colonial Period|last=Hall|first=Richard|date=1976|publisher=Longman|isbn=9780582646209|location=London|pages=30|oclc=3040572}}</ref> The [[Bia River]] expedition finished the job of establishing an administration of sorts and a "police presence" in Katanga. Thus, the half million square kilometres of Katanga came into Leopold's possession and brought his African realm up to {{convert|2300000|km2}}, about 75 times larger than Belgium. The Congo Free State imposed such a [[State terrorism|terror regime]] on the colonized people, including mass killings and forced labour, that Belgium, under pressure from the [[Congo Reform Association]], ended Leopold II's rule and annexed it on 20 August 1908 as a colony of Belgium, known as the [[Belgian Congo]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/dated-event/congo-free-state-becomes-belgian-congo|title=Congo Free State becomes the Belgian Congo {{!}} South African History Online|date=20 August 2003|website=www.sahistory.org.za|access-date=2019-12-20}}</ref>

[[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|From 1885 to 1908, [[Atrocities in the Congo Free State|many atrocities]] were perpetrated in the [[Congo Free State]]; in these images, Native Congo Free State labourers who failed to meet rubber collection quotas have been punished by having their hands cut off.]]
The [[Atrocities in the Congo Free State|brutality of King Leopold II]] in his former colony of the Congo Free State<ref>{{cite book |last=Bourne |first=Henry Richard Fox |title=Civilisation in Congoland: A Story of International Wrong-doing |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jWccAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Civilisation+in+Congoland%22&pg=PA1 |access-date=2007-09-26 |year=1903 |publisher=P.S. King & Son |location=London |page=253}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Forbath |first=Peter |title=The River Congo: The Discovery, Exploration and Exploitation of the World's Most Dramatic Rivers |year=1977 |publisher=[Harper & Row] |isbn=978-0-06-122490-4 |page=374}}</ref> was well documented; up to 8 million of the estimated 16 million native inhabitants died between 1885 and 1908.<ref name="NYT 30.08.2012">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/books/98/08/30/daily/leopold-book-review.html |title="King Leopold's Ghost": Genocide With Spin Control |author=Michiko Kakutani |date=30 August 1998 |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=2 February 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410092604/http://www.nytimes.com/books/98/08/30/daily/leopold-book-review.html |archive-date=April 10, 2009}}</ref> According to [[Roger Casement]], an Irish diplomat of the time, this depopulation had four main causes: "indiscriminate war", starvation, reduction of births and diseases.{{sfn|Hochschild|2006|pp=226–32}} [[African trypanosomiasis|Sleeping sickness]] ravaged the country and must also be taken into account for the dramatic decrease in population; it has been estimated that sleeping sickness and [[smallpox]] killed nearly half the population in the areas surrounding the lower Congo River.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=8DSa_viBgsgC John D. Fage, ''The Cambridge History of Africa: From the earliest times to c. 500 BC''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221205104515/https://books.google.com/books?id=8DSa_viBgsgC&pg=&dq&hl=en |date=2022-12-05 }}, Cambridge University Press, 1982, p. 748. {{ISBN|0-521-22803-4}}</ref> Estimates of the death toll vary considerably. As the first census did not take place until 1924, it is difficult to quantify the population loss of the period. The [[Casement Report]] set it at three million.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.urome.be/fr2/reflexions/casemrepo.pdf |title="Report of the British Consul, Roger Casement, on the Administration of the Congo Free State". |access-date=2007-09-30 |archive-date=2020-10-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201016114606/http://www.urome.be/fr2/reflexions/casemrepo.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> [[William Rubinstein]] writes: "More basically, it appears almost certain that the population figures given by [[Adam Hochschild|Hochschild]] are inaccurate. There is, of course, no way of ascertaining the population of the Congo before the twentieth century, and estimates like 20 million are purely guesses. Most of the interior of the Congo was literally unexplored if not inaccessible."<ref>Rubinstein, W.D. (2004). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC Genocide: a history] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221205104515/https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=&dq&hl=en |date=2022-12-05 }}''. Pearson Education. pp. 98–99. {{ISBN|0-582-50601-8}}</ref>

A similar situation occurred in the neighbouring [[French Congo]], where most of the resource extraction was run by concession companies, whose brutal methods, along with the introduction of disease, resulted in the loss of up to 50% of the indigenous population according to Hochschild.<ref>{{cite book |last=Vansina |first=Jan |title=Paths in the Rainforest |year=1966 |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |location=Madison |page=239}}</ref> The French government appointed a commission headed by de Brazza in 1905 to investigate the rumoured abuses in the colony. However, de Brazza died on the return trip, and his "searingly critical" report was neither acted upon nor released to the public.{{sfn|Hochschild|2006|pp=280–81}} In the 1920s, about 20,000 forced labourers died building a railroad through the French territory.<ref>{{cite book |last=Coquéry-Vidrovitch |first=Catherine |title=Le Congo au temps des grandes compagnies concessionaires 1898–1930 |year=1971 |publisher=Mouton |location=Paris |page=195}}</ref>

====Egypt, Sudan, and South Sudan====

=====Suez Canal=====
[[File:Port Said Suez Canal.jpg|thumb|[[Port Said]] entrance to Suez Canal, showing De Lesseps' statue]]

To construct the [[Suez Canal]], French diplomat [[Ferdinand de Lesseps]] had obtained many concessions from [[Isma'il Pasha]], the [[Khedive]] of Egypt and Sudan in 1854–56. Some sources estimate the workforce at 30,000,<ref>[http://www.arte.tv/fr/connaissance-decouverte/aventure-humaine/Cette_20semaine/1291022.html L'Aventure Humaine: ''Le canal de Suez'', Article de l'historien Uwe Oster] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110819201458/http://www.arte.tv/fr/connaissance-decouverte/aventure-humaine/Cette_20semaine/1291022.html |date=2011-08-19}}.</ref> but others estimate that 120,000 workers died over the ten years of construction from malnutrition, fatigue, and disease, especially [[cholera]].<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/5195068.stm BBC News website:The Suez Crisis &nbsp;–  Key maps] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170617005650/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/5195068.stm |date=2017-06-17 }}.</ref> Shortly before its completion in 1869, Khedive Isma'il borrowed enormous sums from British and French bankers at high rates of interest. By 1875, he was facing financial difficulties and was forced to sell his block of shares in the Suez Canal. The shares were snapped up by Britain, under Prime Minister [[Benjamin Disraeli]], who sought to give his country practical control in the management of this strategic waterway. When Isma'il repudiated Egypt's foreign debt in 1879, Britain and France seized joint financial control over the country, forcing the Egyptian ruler to abdicate and installing his eldest son [[Tewfik Pasha]] in his place.<ref>{{cite book|title=World monarchies and dynasties|last=Middleton|first=John|date=2015|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781317451587|location=Armonk, NY|pages=273|oclc=681311754}}</ref> The Egyptian and Sudanese ruling classes did not relish foreign intervention.

=====Mahdist War=====
During the 1870s, European initiatives against the slave trade caused an economic crisis in northern Sudan, precipitating the rise of [[Mahdist State|Mahdist]] forces.<ref>{{cite web|author=Domke, D. Michelle|url=http://www.american.edu/ted/ice/sudan.htm |title=ICE Case Studies; Case Number: 3; Case Identifier: Sudan; Case Name: Civil War in the Sudan: Resources or Religion?
| publisher=[[Inventory of Conflict and Environment]] (via the [[School of International Service]] at the [[American University]]) |date=November 1997 |access-date=8 January 2011}}</ref> In 1881, the [[Mahdist War|Mahdist revolt]] erupted in Sudan under [[Muhammad Ahmad]], severing Tewfik's authority in Sudan. The same year, Tewfik suffered an even more perilous rebellion by his Egyptian army in the form of the [[ʻUrabi revolt|Urabi revolt]]. In 1882, Tewfik appealed for direct British military assistance, commencing Britain's administration of Egypt. A joint British-Egyptian military force entered the Mahdist War.<ref name=":1">{{cite web |last=Hurst |first=Ryan |date=2009-07-15 |title=Mahdist Revolution (1881-1898) • |url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/mahdist-revolution-1881-1898/ |access-date=2019-12-21 |website=BlackPast |language=en-US}}</ref> Additionally the Egyptian province of [[Equatoria]] (located in South Sudan) led by [[Emin Pasha]] was also subject to an ostensible [[Emin Pasha Relief Expedition|relief expedition of Emin Pasha]] against Mahdist forces.<ref>{{cite news |title=A Self-declared Pasha and African Explorer Is Killed |work=Haaretz |url=https://www.haaretz.com/jewish/.premium-a-self-declared-pasha-and-african-explorer-is-killed-1.5412467 |access-date=2022-03-08}}</ref> The British-Egyptian force ultimately defeated the Mahdist forces in Sudan in 1898.<ref name=":1" /> Thereafter, Britain seized effective control of Sudan, which was nominally called [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan]].

====Berlin Conference (1884–1885)====
{{main|Berlin Conference}}
[[File:Kongokonferenz.jpg|thumb|Otto von Bismarck at the Berlin Conference, 1884]]

The occupation of Egypt and the acquisition of the Congo were the first major moves in what came to be a precipitous scramble for African territory. In 1884, [[Otto von Bismarck]] convened the 1884–1885 Berlin Conference to discuss the African problem.<ref>Stig Förster,  Wolfgang Justin Mommsen, and Ronald Edward Robinson, eds. ''Bismarck, Europe and Africa: The Berlin Africa conference 1884-1885 and the onset of partition'' (Oxford University Press, 1988).</ref> While diplomatic discussions were held regarding ending the remaining slave trade as well as the reach of missionary activities, the primary concern of those in attendance was preventing war between the European powers as they divided the continent among themselves.<ref>{{cite journal|date=1900|title=The Redemption of Africa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pq8_AQAAMAAJ&q=condemn+the+slave+trade+berlin+conference+missionary|journal=The Church Missionary Review|volume=51|pages=483}}</ref> More importantly, the diplomats in [[Berlin]] laid down the rules of competition by which the great powers were to be guided in seeking colonies. They also agreed that the area along the Congo River was to be administered by Leopold II as a neutral area in which trade and navigation were to be free.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Story of the Congo Free State: Social, Political, and Economic Aspects of the Belgian System of Government in Central Africa|url=https://archive.org/details/storycongofrees01wackgoog|last=Wack|first=Henry Wellington|publisher=G. P. Putnam's Sons|year=1905|location=New York and London|pages=[https://archive.org/details/storycongofrees01wackgoog/page/n771 541]}}</ref> No nation was to stake claims in Africa without notifying other powers of its intentions. No territory could be formally claimed before being effectively occupied. However, the competitors ignored the rules when convenient, and on several occasions war was only narrowly avoided (see [[Fashoda Incident]]).{{citation needed|date=January 2023}} The [[Swahili coast]] territories of the Sultanate of Zanzibar were partitioned between Germany and Britain, initially leaving the archipelago of [[Zanzibar]] independent until 1890, when that remnant of the Sultanate was made into a British protectorate with the [[Heligoland–Zanzibar Treaty]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Shivji |first=Issa G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qflWEAAAQBAJ |title=Pan-Africanism or pragmatism? : lessons of the Tanganyika-Zanzibar union |date=2008 |publisher=Mkuki na Nyota Publishers |others=Organization for Social Science Research in Eastern and Southern Africa |isbn=978-9987-08-105-9 |location=Dar es Salaam, Tanzania |pages=7 |oclc=777576770}}</ref>

====Britain's administration of Egypt and South Africa====
[[File:LizzieVanZyl.jpg|thumb|[[Boer]] child in a [[Second Boer War concentration camps|British concentration camp]] during the [[Second Boer War]] (1899–1902)]]

Britain's administration of Egypt and the [[Cape Colony]] contributed to a preoccupation over securing the source of the [[Nile]] River.{{Sfn|Robinson|Gallagher|Denny|1961}} Egypt was taken over by the British in 1882, leaving the Ottoman Empire in a nominal role until 1914, when London made it a protectorate. Egypt was never an actual British colony.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sicker |first=Martin |title=The Middle East in the Twentieth Century |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |location=Westport, CT |date=2001 |pages=101 |isbn=9780275968939 |oclc=44860930}}</ref> Sudan, Nigeria, Kenya, and Uganda were subjugated in the 1890s and early 20th century; and in the south, the Cape Colony (first acquired in 1795) provided a base for the subjugation of neighbouring African states and the Dutch [[Afrikaners|Afrikaner]] settlers who had left the Cape to avoid the British and then founded their republics. [[Theophilus Shepstone]] annexed the [[South African Republic]] in 1877 for the British Empire, after it had been independent for twenty years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?ParagraphID=ory|title=History of South Africa|website=HistoryWorld |access-date=2019-12-22}}</ref> In 1879, after the [[Anglo-Zulu War]], Britain consolidated its control of most of the territories of South Africa. The Boers protested, and in December 1880 they revolted, leading to the [[First Boer War]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/boer_wars_01.shtml|title= History - The Boer Wars|date=2011-03-29 |first1=Fransjohan |last1=Pretorius |website=BBC |language=en-GB|access-date=2019-12-22}}</ref> British Prime Minister [[William Ewart Gladstone|William Gladstone]] signed a peace treaty on 23 March 1881, giving self-government to the [[Boers]] in the [[Transvaal Colony|Transvaal]]. The [[Jameson Raid]] of 1895 was a failed attempt by the British South Africa Company and the [[Johannesburg Reform Committee]] to overthrow the Boer government in the Transvaal. The [[Second Boer War]], fought between 1899 and 1902, was about control of the gold and diamond industries; the independent Boer republics of the [[Orange Free State]] and the South African Republic were this time defeated and absorbed into the British Empire.

The French thrust into the African interior was mainly from the coasts of [[West Africa]] (present-day Senegal) eastward, through the [[Sahel]] along the southern border of the [[Sahara]]. Their ultimate aim was to have an uninterrupted colonial empire from the [[Niger River]] to the Nile, thus controlling all trade to and from the Sahel region by their existing control over the caravan routes through the Sahara. The British, on the other hand, wanted to link their possessions in [[Southern Africa]] with their territories in [[East Africa]] and these two areas with the Nile basin.

[[File:Muhammad Ahmad.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Muhammad Ahmad]], leader of the Mahdists. This fundamentalist group of Muslim dervishes overran much of [[Sudan]] and [[Mahdist War|fought]] British forces.]]
The Sudan (which included most of present-day Uganda) was the key to the fulfilment of these ambitions, especially since Egypt was already under British control. This "red line" through Africa is made most famous by Cecil Rhodes. Along with [[Alfred Milner, 1st Viscount Milner|Lord Milner]], the British colonial minister in South Africa, Rhodes advocated such a "Cape to Cairo" empire, linking the Suez Canal to the mineral-rich South Africa by rail. Though hampered by the German occupation of [[German East Africa|Tanganyika]] until the end of World War I, Rhodes successfully lobbied on behalf of such a sprawling African empire.

Britain had sought to extend its East African empire contiguously from Cairo to the [[Cape of Good Hope]], while France had sought to extend its holdings from Dakar to the Sudan, which would enable its empire to span the entire continent from the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to the [[Red Sea]]. If one draws a line from [[Cape Town]] to [[Cairo]] (Rhodes's dream), and one from [[Dakar]] to the [[Horn of Africa]] (the French ambition), these two lines intersect somewhere in eastern Sudan near [[Fashoda State|Fashoda]], explaining its strategic importance.

A French force under [[Jean-Baptiste Marchand]] arrived first at the strategically located fort at Fashoda, soon followed by a British force under [[Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener|Lord Kitchener]], commander in chief of the British Army since 1892. The French withdrew after a standoff and continued to press claims to other posts in the region. The [[Fashoda Incident]] ultimately led to the signature of the ''[[Entente cordiale|Entente Cordiale]]'' of 1904, which guaranteed peace between the two.

====Anglo-French Agreement====
In 1890, both the United Kingdom and France were able to reach a diplomatic solution over a colonial dispute that would guarantee freedom of trade for the British Empire while allowing France to expand their influence in North Africa.<ref>"House Of Commons." ''Times'', 1 Aug. 1890, pp. 4+. ''The Times Digital Archive'', https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CS67425025/TTDA?u=tall85761&sid=bookmark-TTDA&xid=a84b3025. Accessed 18 Apr. 2023.</ref> In exchange for France recognizing Britain's protectorate over Zanzibar, the British Empire recognized France's claim to Madagascar as well as their sphere of influence in North Africa stretching down to the border region of Sokoto.<ref>"The Anglo-French Agreement." ''Times'', 12 Aug. 1890, p. 6. ''The Times Digital Archive'', https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CS101372684/TTDA?u=tall85761&sid=bookmark-TTDA&xid=3207b64c. Accessed 18 Apr. 2023.</ref> However, finely demarcating this border was difficult to do without a large map.<ref>"LORD SALISBURY yesterday expounded the Anglo-." ''Times'', 12 Aug. 1890, p. 7. ''The Times Digital Archive'', https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CS117887756/TTDA?u=tall85761&sid=bookmark-TTDA&xid=5cff4a4a. Accessed 18 Apr. 2023.</ref>

====Moroccan Crises====
{{main|First Moroccan Crisis|Agadir Crisis}}
[[File:Pacification.jpg|thumb|Map depicting the staged [[French conquest of Morocco|pacification of Morocco]] through to 1934]]

Although the Berlin Conference had set the rules for the Scramble for Africa, it had not weakened the rival imperialists.  As a result of the ''Entente Cordiale'', the German Kaiser decided to test the solidity of such influence, using the contested territory of [[Morocco]] as a battlefield. Kaiser Wilhelm II visited [[Tangier]] on 31 March 1905 and made a speech in favour of Moroccan independence, challenging French influence in Morocco. France's presence had been reaffirmed by Britain and Spain in 1904. The Kaiser's speech bolstered French nationalism, and with British support, the French foreign minister, [[Théophile Delcassé]], took a defiant line. The crisis peaked in mid-June 1905 when Delcassé was forced out of the ministry by the more conciliation-minded premier [[Maurice Rouvier]]. But by July 1905 Germany was becoming isolated, and the French agreed to a conference to solve the crisis.[[File:Si Kaddour ben Ghabrit et le sultan Moufay Hafid.jpg|thumb|left|The Moroccan [[Sultan]] [[Abdelhafid of Morocco|Abdelhafid]], who led the resistance to French expansionism during the [[Agadir Crisis]]]]

The 1906 [[Algeciras Conference]] was called to settle the dispute. Of the thirteen nations present, the German representatives found their only supporter was [[Austria-Hungary]], which had no interest in Africa. France had firm support from Britain, the U.S., Russia, Italy, and Spain. The Germans eventually accepted an agreement, signed on 31 May 1906, whereby France yielded certain domestic changes in Morocco but retained control of key areas.

However, five years later the Second Moroccan Crisis (or [[Agadir Crisis]]) was sparked by the deployment of the German gunboat ''[[SMS Panther|Panther]]'' to the port of [[Agadir]] in July 1911. Germany had started to attempt to match Britain's [[History of the Royal Navy (after 1707)|naval supremacy]]—the British navy had a policy of remaining larger than the next two rival fleets in the world combined. When the British heard of the ''Panther''{{'}}s arrival in Morocco, they wrongly believed that the Germans meant to turn Agadir into a naval base on the Atlantic. The German move was aimed at reinforcing claims for compensation for acceptance of effective French control of the [[North Africa]]n kingdom, where France's pre-eminence had been upheld by the 1906 Algeciras Conference. In November 1911, a compromise was reached under which Germany accepted France's position in Morocco in return for a slice of territory in the [[French Equatorial Africa]]n colony of [[French Congo|Middle Congo]].<ref>Sean M. Lynn-Jones, "Detente and deterrence: Anglo-German relations, 1911-1914." ''International Security'' 11#2 (1986): 121-150 [https://muse.jhu.edu/article/446285/summary online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190816194806/https://muse.jhu.edu/article/446285/summary |date=2019-08-16 }}.</ref>

[[French protectorate in Morocco|France]] and [[Spanish protectorate in Morocco|Spain]] subsequently established a full [[protectorate]] over Morocco on 30 March 1912, ending what remained of the country's formal independence. Furthermore, British backing for France during the two Moroccan crises reinforced the ''Entente'' between the two countries and added to Anglo-German estrangement, deepening the divisions that would culminate in the First World War.

====Dervish resistance====
Following the Berlin Conference, the British, Italians, and Ethiopians sought to claim lands inhabited by the Somalis. The [[Dervish movement (Somali)|Dervish movement]], led by [[Mohammed Abdullah Hassan|Sayid Muhammed Abdullah Hassan]], existed for 21 years, from 1899 until 1920. The Dervish movement successfully repulsed the British Empire four times and forced it to retreat to the coastal region. Because of these successful expeditions, the Dervish movement was recognized as an ally by the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] and [[German Empire|German]] empires. The [[Turkish people|Turks]] named Hassan [[Emir]] of the Somali nation, and the Germans promised to officially recognise any territories the Dervishes were to acquire. After a quarter of a century of holding the British at bay, the [[Somaliland campaign (1920)|Dervishes were finally defeated in 1920]] as a direct consequence of Britain's use of aircraft.

====Herero Wars and the Maji Maji Rebellion====
{{Main|Herero Wars|Maji Maji Rebellion}}
{{see also|Herero and Namaqua genocide}}
[[File:Herero Nama Shark Island Death Camp Lieutenant von Durling 05.jpg|thumb|upright|Lieutenant von Durling with prisoners at [[Shark Island concentration camp|Shark Island]], one of the German concentration camps used during the [[Herero and Namaqua genocide]]]]

Between 1904 and 1908, Germany's colonies in [[German South West Africa]] and [[German East Africa]] were rocked by separate, contemporaneous native revolts against their rule. In both territories the threat to German rule was quickly defeated once large-scale reinforcements from Germany arrived, with the [[Herero people|Herero]] rebels in German South West Africa being defeated at the [[Battle of Waterberg]] and the Maji-Maji rebels in German East Africa being steadily crushed by German forces slowly advancing through the countryside, with the natives resorting to [[guerrilla warfare]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Prein |first=Philipp |date=1994 |title=Guns and Top Hats: African Resistance in German South West Africa, 1907-1915 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2637122 |journal=Journal of Southern African Studies |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=99–121 |doi=10.1080/03057079408708389 |jstor=2637122 |bibcode=1994JSAfS..20...99P |issn=0305-7070}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k1bRcJ885fAC|title=The Revolt of the Hereros|last=Bridgman|first=Jon|date=1981|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-04113-4|language=en}}</ref>

German efforts to clear the bush of civilians in German South West Africa resulted in a genocide of the population. In total, as many as 65,000 Herero (80% of the total Herero population), and 10,000 Namaqua (50% of the total Namaqua population) either starved, died of thirst, or were worked to death in camps such as [[Shark Island concentration camp]] between 1904 and 1908. Between 24,000 and 100,000 Hereros, 10,000 [[Nama people|Nama]], and an unknown number of [[San people|San]] died in the genocide.<ref name="Walter Nuhn 1904">{{cite book |author = Nuhn, Walter | year = 1989 | title = Sturm über Südwest. Der Hereroaufstand von 1904 | language = de | location = Koblenz, DEU | publisher = Bernard & Graefe-Verlag | isbn = 978-3-7637-5852-4}}{{page needed|date=December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia | last = Schaller | first = Dominik J. | editor-last = Moses | editor-first = A. Dirk | title = From Conquest to Genocide: Colonial Rule in German Southwest Africa and German East Africa. | trans-title = Empire, Colony Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History | edition = first | year = 2008 | publisher = Berghahn Books | location = Oxford | isbn = 978-1-84545-452-4 | pages = 296 | quote = see his footnotes to German language sources citation #1 for Chapter 13. }}</ref><ref name=sarkin>Jeremy Sarkin-Hughes (2008) ''Colonial Genocide and Reparations Claims in the 21st Century: The Socio-Legal Context of Claims under International Law by the Herero against Germany for Genocide in Namibia, 1904-1908'', p. 142, Praeger Security International, Westport, Conn. {{ISBN|978-0-31336-256-9}}</ref><ref name=moses>{{cite book |author = Moses, A. Dirk | year = 2008 | title = Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation and Subaltern Resistance in World History | location = New York | publisher = Berghahn Books | isbn = 978-1-84545-452-4 }}{{page needed|date=December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author = Schaller, Dominik J. | year = 2008 | title = From Conquest to Genocide: Colonial Rule in German Southwest Africa and German East Africa | location = New York | publisher = Berghahn Books | page= 296 | isbn = 978-1-84545-452-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author = Friedrichsmeyer, Sara L. |author2=Lennox, Sara |author3=Zantop, Susanne M.  | year = 1998 | title = The Imperialist Imagination: German Colonialism and Its Legacy | location = Ann Arbor, MI | publisher = University of Michigan Press | page= 87 | isbn = 978-0-472-09682-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor = Baronian, Marie-Aude |editor2=Besser, Stephan |editor3=Jansen, Yolande | year = 2007 | title = Diaspora and Memory: Figures of Displacement in Contemporary Literature, Arts and Politics | series = Thamyris, Intersecting Place, Sex and Race, Issue 13 | location = Leiden, NDL | publisher = Brill/Rodopi | page= 33 | issn = 1381-1312 | isbn = 978-9042021297 }}</ref> Characteristic of this genocide was death from starvation, thirst, and possibly the poisoning of the population's wells, whilst they were trapped in the [[Namib|Namib Desert]].<ref>Ulrich van der Heyden; Holger Stoecker (2005) ''Mission und Macht im Wandel politischer Orientierungen: Europaische Missionsgesellschaften in politischen Spannungsfeldern in Afrika und Asien zwischen 1800–1945'', p. 394, Franz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart {{ISBN|978-3-515-08423-9}}</ref><ref name=totten>Samuel Totten, William S. Parsons, Israel W. Charny (2004)  [https://books.google.com/books?id=5Ef8Hrx8Cd0C&dq=Herero+Poisoned+wells&pg=PA51 ''Century of Genocide: Critical Essays and Eyewitness Accounts''], Routledge, NY {{ISBN|978-0-203-89043-1}} p. 22</ref><ref name=kroll>Dan Kroll (2006) ''Securing Our Water Supply: Protecting a Vulnerable Resource'', p. 22, PennWell Corp/University of Michigan Press {{ISBN|978-1-59370-069-0}}</ref>

==Philosophy==

===Colonial consciousness and exhibitions===

====Colonial lobby====
[[File:African Pigmies CNE-v1-p58-B.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Pygmies]] and a European. Some pygmies would be exposed in [[human zoo]]s, such as [[Ota Benga]] displayed by [[eugenicist]] [[Madison Grant]] in the [[Bronx Zoo]].]]

In its earlier stages, imperialism was generally the act of individual explorers as well as some adventurous merchantmen. The colonial powers were a long way from approving without any dissent the expensive adventures carried out abroad. Various important political leaders, such as [[William Ewart Gladstone|William Gladstone]], opposed colonization in its first years. However, during his second premiership between 1880 and 1885, he could not resist the colonial lobby in his cabinet and thus did not execute his electoral promise to disengage from Egypt. Although Gladstone was personally opposed to imperialism, the [[class conflict|social tensions]] caused by the Long Depression pushed him to favour [[jingoism]]: the imperialists had become the "parasites of patriotism."<ref>[[John A. Hobson]], ''[[Imperialism (Hobson)|Imperialism]]'', 1902, p. 61 (quoted by Arendt).</ref> In [[French Third Republic|France]], [[Radical Party (France)|Radical]] politician [[Georges Clemenceau]] was adamantly opposed to it: he thought colonization was a diversion from the "blue line of the [[Vosges]]" mountains, that is [[revanchism]] and the patriotic urge to reclaim the [[Alsace–Lorraine|Alsace-Lorraine]] region which had been annexed by the German Empire with the 1871 [[Treaty of Frankfurt (1871)|Treaty of Frankfurt]]. Clemenceau made [[Jules Ferry]]'s cabinet fall after the 1885 [[Sino-French War|Tonkin disaster]]. According to [[Hannah Arendt]] in ''[[The Origins of Totalitarianism]]'' (1951), this expansion of national sovereignty on overseas territories contradicted the unity of the [[nation state]] which provided citizenship to its population. Thus, a tension between the [[Moral universalism|universalist]] will respect human rights of the colonized people, as they may be considered as "citizens" of the nation-state, and the imperialist drive to cynically [[Exploitation of labour|exploit populations]] deemed inferior began to surface. Some, in colonizing countries, opposed what they saw as unnecessary evils of the colonial administration when left to itself; as described in [[Joseph Conrad]]'s ''[[Heart of Darkness]]'' (1899)—published around the same time as [[Rudyard Kipling|Kipling]]'s ''[[The White Man's Burden]]''—or in [[Louis-Ferdinand Céline]]'s ''[[Journey to the End of the Night]]'' (1932).

Colonial lobbies emerged to legitimise the Scramble for Africa and other expensive overseas adventures. In Germany, France, and Britain, the middle class often sought strong overseas policies to ensure the market's growth. Even in lesser powers, voices like [[Enrico Corradini]] claimed a "place in the sun" for so-called "proletarian nations", bolstering nationalism and militarism in an early prototype of fascism.

====Colonial propaganda and jingoism====
A plethora of colonialist propaganda pamphlets, ideas, and imagery played on the colonial powers' psychology of popular jingoism and proud nationalism.<ref>Andrew S. Thompson, and John M. MacKenzie, ''Developing Africa: Concepts and practices in twentieth-century colonialism'' (Manchester University Press, 2016).</ref> A hallmark of the French colonial project in the late 19th century and early 20th century was the [[civilizing mission]] (''mission civilisatrice''), the principle that it was Europe's duty to bring civilisation to benighted peoples.<ref>{{cite book|author=Betts, Raymond F.|title=Assimilation and Association in French Colonial Theory, 1890–1914|publisher=University of Nebraska Press|year=2005|isbn=9780803262478|page=10|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qykx505NU1oC&pg=PA10}}</ref> As such, colonial officials undertook a policy of Franco-Europeanisation in French colonies, most notably [[French West Africa]] and [[French Madagascar|Madagascar]]. During the 19th century, French citizenship along with the right to elect a deputy to the French Chamber of Deputies was granted to the four old colonies of Guadeloupe, Martinique, Guyane and Réunion as well as to the residents of the "[[Four Communes]]" in Senegal. In most cases, the elected deputies were white Frenchmen, although there were some black deputies, such as the Senegalese [[Blaise Diagne]], who was elected in 1914.<ref name="Segalla 2009">Segalla, Spencer. 2009, ''The Moroccan Soul: French Education, Colonial Ethnology, and Muslim Resistance, 1912–1956''. Nebraska University Press</ref>

====Colonial exhibitions====
[[File:Dellepiane-exposition-nationale-coloniale-1906.jpg|thumb|Poster for the 1906 [[Colonial Exhibition]] in [[Marseilles]] (France)]]
[[File:Affiche exposition coloniale Tervuren.jpg|thumb|upright|Poster for the 1897 [[Brussels International Exposition (1897)|Brussels International Exposition]].]]

By the end of World War I the colonial empires had become very popular almost everywhere in Europe: [[public opinion]] had been convinced of the needs of a colonial empire, although most of the metropolitans would never see a piece of it. [[Colonial exhibition]]s were instrumental in this change of popular mentalities brought about by the colonial propaganda, supported by the colonial lobby and by various scientists.<ref>Paul S. Landau, and Deborah D. Kaspin, eds. ''Images and empires: visuality in colonial and postcolonial Africa'' (U of California Press, 2002).</ref> Thus, conquests of territories were inevitably followed by public displays of the indigenous people for scientific and leisure purposes.

[[Carl Hagenbeck]], a German merchant in wild animals and a future entrepreneur of most Europeans zoos, decided in 1874 to exhibit [[Samoa]] and [[Sámi people|Sami people]] as "purely natural" populations. In 1876, he sent one of his collaborators to the newly conquered Egyptian Sudan to bring back some wild beasts and [[Nubians]]. Presented in Paris, London, and Berlin these Nubians were very successful. Such "[[human zoo]]s" could be found in Hamburg, Antwerp, Barcelona, London, Milan, New York City, Paris, etc., with 200,000 to 300,000 visitors attending each exhibition. [[Tuareg people|Tuaregs]] were exhibited after the French conquest of [[Timbuktu]] (visited by [[René Caillié]], disguised as a Muslim, in 1828, thereby winning the prize offered by the French ''Société de Géographie''); [[Malagasy people|Malagasy]] after the occupation of Madagascar; [[Dahomey Amazons|Amazons]] of [[Abomey]] after [[Béhanzin|Behanzin]]'s mediatic defeat against the French in 1894. Not used to the climatic conditions, some of the indigenous died from exposure, such as some [[Kalina people|Galibis]] in Paris in 1892.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ces.uc.pt/formacao/materiais_racismo_pos_racismo/From_human_zoos_to_colonial_apotheoses_the_era_of_exhibiting_the_Other.htm |title=Pascal Blanchard, Nicolas Bancel, and Sandrine Lemaire, "From human zoos to colonial apotheoses: the era of exhibiting the Other". |access-date=2013-08-02 |archive-date=2021-10-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211024151611/https://www.ces.uc.pt/formacao/materiais_racismo_pos_racismo/From_human_zoos_to_colonial_apotheoses_the_era_of_exhibiting_the_Other.htm |url-status=live}}</ref>

Geoffroy de Saint-Hilaire, director of the [[Jardin d'Acclimatation]], decided in 1877 to organise two "ethnological spectacles", presenting Nubians and [[Inuit]]. Ticket sales at the Jardin d'Acclimatation doubled, with a million paying entrances that year, a huge success for these times. Between 1877 and 1912, approximately thirty "ethnological exhibitions" were presented at the zoo.<ref>[http://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/2000/08/BANCEL/14145.html "These human zoos of the Colonial Republic"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140405044035/http://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/2000/08/BANCEL/14145.html |date=2014-04-05 }}, ''[[Le Monde diplomatique]]'', August 2000 {{in lang|fr}}. ([http://mondediplo.com/2000/08/07humanzoo Translation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127010516/http://mondediplo.com/2000/08/07humanzoo |date=2020-11-27 }} {{in lang|en}})</ref> "Negro villages" were presented in Paris' [[Exposition Universelle (1878)|1878 World's Fair]]; the [[Exposition Universelle (1900)|1900 World's Fair]] presented the famous [[diorama]] "living" in Madagascar, while the Colonial Exhibitions in Marseilles (1906 and 1922) and in Paris (1907 and 1931)displayed human beings in cages, often nudes or quasi-nudes.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.discoverparis.net/newsletter.html?insight=3162983825694464 |title=February 2003, the end of an era |publisher=Discoverparis.net |access-date=2010-08-08 |archive-date=2016-03-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303222239/http://www.discoverparis.net/newsletter.html?insight=3162983825694464 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Nomadic "Senegalese villages" were also created, thus displaying the power of the colonial empire to all the population.

In the U.S., [[Madison Grant]], head of the New York Zoological Society, exposed [[Pygmy peoples|Pygmy]] [[Ota Benga]] in the [[Bronx Zoo]] alongside the apes and others in 1906. At the behest of Grant, a [[Scientific racism|scientific racist]] and [[Eugenics|eugenicist]], zoo director [[William Temple Hornaday]] placed Ota Benga in a cage with an orangutan and labeled him "The [[Missing link (human evolution)|Missing Link]]" in an attempt to illustrate [[Darwinism]], and in particular that Africans like Ota Benga are closer to apes than were Europeans. Other colonial exhibitions included the 1924 [[British Empire Exhibition]] and the 1931 Paris "Exposition coloniale".

===Countering disease===
From the beginning of the 20th century, the elimination or control of disease in tropical countries became a driving force for all colonial powers.<ref>[http://www.gresham.ac.uk/event.asp?PageId=45&EventId=696 Conquest and Disease or Colonialism and Health?] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081207015726/http://www.gresham.ac.uk/event.asp?PageId=45&EventId=696 |date=2008-12-07}}, Gresham College | Lectures and Events.</ref> The [[African trypanosomiasis|sleeping sickness]] epidemic in Africa was arrested through mobile teams systematically screening millions of people at risk.<ref>{{cite web |author=WHO Media centre |title=Fact sheet N°259: African trypanosomiasis or sleeping sickness |url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs259/en/index.html |year=2001}}</ref> In the 1880s cattle brought from British Asia to feed Italian soldiers invading Eritrea turned out to be infected with a disease called [[rinderpest]]. Decimation of native herds severely damaged local livelihoods, forcing people to labor for their colonizers.

In the 20th century, Africa saw the biggest increase in its population because of lessening of the [[mortality rate]] in many countries through peace, famine relief, [[Medicine#Modern|medicine]], and above all, the end or decline of the slave trade.<ref>{{cite journal |jstor = 182701|title = The Origins of African Population Growth|journal = The Journal of African History|volume = 30|issue = 1|pages = 165–69|last1 = Iliffe|first1 = John|year = 1989|doi = 10.1017/S0021853700030942|s2cid = 59931797}}</ref> Africa's population has grown from 120 million in 1900<ref>{{cite book |title=A Concise Economic History of the World |last=Cameron |first=Rondo |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1993 |location=New York |page=193}}</ref> to over 1 billion today.<ref>[http://www.africanews.com/site/Africas_population_now_1_billion/list_messages/26588 "Africa's population now 1 billion"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427034124/http://www.africanews.com/site/Africas_population_now_1_billion/list_messages/26588 |date=2011-04-27}}. AfricaNews. August 25, 2009.</ref>

===Slavery abolition===
{{main|Slavery in Africa#Abolition}}

The continuing [[Abolitionism|anti-slavery movement]] in Western Europe became a reason and an excuse for the conquest and colonization of Africa. It was the central theme of the [[Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90]]. From start of the Scramble for Africa, virtually all colonial regimes claimed to be motivated by a desire to suppress slavery and the slave trade. In French West Africa, following conquest and abolition by the French, over one million slaves fled from their masters to earlier homes between 1906 and 1911. In Madagascar, the French abolished slavery in 1896, and approximately 500,000 slaves were freed. Slavery was abolished in the French controlled Sahel by 1911. Independent nations attempting to westernize or impress Europe sometimes cultivated an image of slavery suppression. In response to European pressure, the [[Sokoto Caliphate]] abolished slavery in 1900, and Ethiopia officially abolished slavery in 1932. Colonial powers were mostly successful in abolishing slavery, though slavery remained active in Africa, even though it has gradually moved to a wage economy. Slavery was never fully eradicated in Africa.<ref>Shillington, Kevin (2005). Encyclopedia of African history. New York: CRC Press, p. 878</ref><ref name=Manning-1990>{{cite book |last=Manning |first=Patrick |title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=London |year=1990}}</ref><ref name="Lovejoy, Paul E. 2012">Lovejoy, Paul E. (2012). Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa. London: Cambridge University Press.</ref><ref>Martin Klein, "Slave Descent and Social Status in Sahara and Sudan", in ''Reconfiguring Slavery: West African Trajectories'', ed. Benedetta Rossi (Liverpool: [[Liverpool University Press]], 2009), 29.</ref>

==Aftermath==
[[File:Victoria (Cameroon).jpg|thumb|[[German Cameroon]], painting by [[Rudolf Hellgrewe|R. Hellgrewe]], 1908]]

During the New Imperialism period, by the end of the 19th century, Europe added almost {{convert|9000000|mi2}} – one-fifth of the land area of the globe – to its overseas colonial possessions. Europe's formal holdings included the entire African continent except Ethiopia, Liberia, and [[Saguia el-Hamra]], the latter of which was eventually integrated into [[Spanish Sahara]]. Between 1885 and 1914, Britain took nearly 30% of Africa's population under its control; 15% for France, 11% for Portugal, 9% for Germany, 7% for Belgium and 1% for Italy.{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}} Nigeria alone contributed 15 million subjects, more than in the whole of French West Africa or the entire German colonial empire. In terms of surface area occupied, the French were the marginal leaders, but much of their territory consisted of the sparsely populated Sahara.<ref>Richard Rathbone,  "World war I and Africa: introduction." ''Journal of African History'' 19.1 (1978): 1-9.</ref><ref>James Joll and Gordon Martel, ''The Origins of the First World War'' (4th ed. 2006) pp 219-253.</ref>

Political imperialism followed the economic expansion, with the "colonial lobbies" bolstering chauvinism and jingoism at each crisis in order to legitimise the colonial enterprise. The tensions between the imperial powers led to a succession of crises, which exploded in August 1914, when previous rivalries and alliances created a domino situation that drew the major European nations into World War I.<ref>William Mulligan, ''The Origins of the First World War'' (2017) pp 230-238.</ref>

===African colonies listed by colonising power===

====Belgium====
[[File:Leopold II Statue at Place du Trône - panoramio.jpg|thumb|Equestrian statue of [[Leopold II of Belgium]], the Sovereign of the [[Congo Free State]] from 1885 to 1908, Regent Place in [[Brussels]], Belgium]]

* [[Belgian Congo]] (1908–1960, now the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]])
* [[Ruanda-Urundi]] (1922–1962, now [[Rwanda]] and [[Burundi]])

====France====
{{Further|French Africa}}
[[File:Mission Foureau-Lamy.jpg|thumb|The [[Amédée-François Lamy|Foureau-Lamy]] military expedition sent out from [[Algiers]] in 1898 to conquer the [[Chad Basin]] and unify all French territories in West Africa.]]
[[File:Desembarco en Cotonou de tropas senegalesas. Le Petit Journal, 21may1892.jpg|thumb|The [[Senegalese Tirailleurs]], led by Colonel [[Alfred-Amédée Dodds]], conquered Dahomey (present-day Benin) in 1892]]

{|
|-
| valign="top" |
* [[French West Africa]]:
** [[Mauritania]]
** [[Senegal]]
** [[Albreda]] (1681–1857, now part of [[Gambia]])
** [[French Sudan]] (now [[Mali]], 1880 – 1958)
**[[Liberia]] Territorial losses of Liberia
** [[French Guinea]] (now [[Guinea]])
** [[Ivory Coast]]
** [[Colony of Niger|Niger]]
** [[French Upper Volta]] (now [[Burkina Faso]])
** [[French Dahomey]] (now [[Benin]])
** [[French Togoland]] (1916–60, now [[Togo]])
** [[Enclaves of Forcados and Badjibo]] (in modern [[Nigeria]])
* [[French Equatorial Africa]]:
** [[Gabon]]
** [[French Cameroun]] (1922–60)
** [[French Congo]] (now [[Republic of the Congo]])
** [[Ubangi-Shari|Oubangui-Chari]] (now [[Central African Republic]])
** [[Colonial Chad|Chad]]
* [[French North Africa]]:
** [[French Algeria]] (1830–1962; was administered as an integral part of France itself from 1848)
** [[French Protectorate of Tunisia]]
** [[French protectorate in Morocco|French Protectorate of Morocco]]
** [[Fezzan-Ghadames (French Administration)|Fezzan-Ghadames]] (1943–1951) (administration given by the UNO after its conquest by [[Charles de Gaulle]])
** [[Egypt]] (ownership (1798–1801))  ([[Condominium (international law)|Condominium]] of [[France]] and the [[United Kingdom]] (1876–1882))<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.minefe.gouv.fr/fonds_documentaire/notes_bleues/nbb/nbb270/entente_cordiale.pdf |title=Centenaire de l'Entente cordiale : les accords franco-britanniques de 1904 |access-date=2011-08-29 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111004005739/http://www.minefe.gouv.fr/fonds_documentaire/notes_bleues/nbb/nbb270/entente_cordiale.pdf |archive-date=2011-10-04 |language=fr}}</ref>
* [[French East Africa]]:
** [[French Madagascar]]
** [[Comoros]]
** [[Scattered islands in the Indian Ocean]]
** [[French Somaliland]] (now [[Djibouti]])
** [[Isle de France (Mauritius)|Isle de France]] (1715–1810) (now [[Mauritius]])
|}

====Germany====
* [[German Kamerun]] (now [[Cameroon]] and part of [[Nigeria]], 1884–1916)
* [[German East Africa]] (now [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]] and most of [[Tanzania]], 1885–1919)
* [[German South-West Africa]] (now [[Namibia]], 1884–1915)
* [[German Togoland]] (now [[Togo]] and eastern part of [[Ghana]], 1884–1914)

After the First World War, Germany's possessions were partitioned among Britain (which took a sliver of western Cameroon, Tanzania, western Togo, and Namibia), France (which took most of Cameroon and eastern Togo) and Belgium (which took Rwanda and Burundi).

====Italy====
[[File:CH-NB - Italienisch-Ostafrika, Massana (Massawa, Massaua)- Hafen - Annemarie Schwarzenbach - SLA-Schwarzenbach-A-5-23-129.jpg|thumb|Italian settlers in [[Massawa]]]]

* [[Italian Eritrea]] (1882-1936)
* [[Italian Somalia]] (1889-1936)
* [[Italian Ethiopia]] (1936-1941)
** ''[[Oltre Giuba]]'' {{small|(annexed into Italian Somalia in 1925)}}
* [[Italian colonization of Libya|Libya]]
** [[Italian Tripolitania]] (1911-1934)
** [[Italian Cyrenaica]] (1911-1934)
** [[Italian Libya]] {{small|(from the unification of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica in 1934)}} (1934-1943; coastal regions administered as [[Fourth Shore|an integral part of Italy itself]] from 1939-1943)

During the [[interwar period]], [[Italian Ethiopia]] formed together with Italian Eritrea and Italian Somaliland the [[Italian East Africa]] (A.O.I., "Africa Orientale Italiana", also defined by the [[Kingdom of Italy#Fascist regime (1922–1943)|fascist government]] as ''L'Impero'').

====Portugal====
[[File:Combat de marracuene.jpg|thumb|[[Marracuene]] in [[Portuguese Mozambique]] was the site of a decisive battle between Portuguese and [[Gaza Empire|Gaza]] king [[Gungunhana]] in 1895]]

{|
|-
| valign="top" |
* [[Portuguese Angola]] (now [[Angola]]) (1575-1975)
** Mainland [[Angola]]
** [[Portuguese Congo]]<br />(now [[Cabinda Province]] of [[Angola]])
* [[Portuguese Mozambique]]<br />(now [[Mozambique]]) (1505-1975)
* [[Portuguese Guinea]]<br />(now [[Guinea-Bissau]]) (1588-1974)
* [[Portuguese Gold Coast]] (now part of [[Ghana]]) (1482-1642)
* [[Portuguese Cape Verde]] (1462-1975)
* [[Portuguese São Tomé and Príncipe]] (1485-1975)
** [[São Tomé Island]]
** [[Príncipe Island]]
** [[Fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá]]<br />(now [[Ouidah]], in [[Benin]])
|}

On 11 June 1951, Portugal would begin to administer its colonies, including its ones in Africa, as [[Overseas province]]s.

====Spain====
{|
|-
| valign="top" |
* Northern [[Spanish protectorate in Morocco|Spanish Morocco]]
** Chefchaouen (''Chauen'')
*** Jebala (''Yebala'')
*** Kert
*** Loukkos (''Lucus'')
*** Rif
* [[Spanish West Africa]] (1946-1958)
** [[Ifni]] (1934-1969)
** Southern Spanish Morocco ([[Cape Juby]])
** [[Spanish Sahara]] (now [[Western Sahara]]) (1884-1958 as a colony of Spain; 1958-1976 as a [[Provinces of Spain|Province of Spain]])
*** [[Saguia el-Hamra]]
*** [[Río de Oro]]
* [[Spanish Guinea]]<br />(now [[Equatorial Guinea]]) (1858-1968)
** [[Bioko|Fernando Pó]]
** [[Río Muni]]
** [[Annobón]]
| valign="top" |
|}

{{anchor|United Kingdom}}<!-- linked -->

==== United Kingdom ====
{{Further|Historiography of the British Empire}}
[[File:1899railroad salisbury.jpg|thumb|Opening of the railway in [[Southern Rhodesia|Rhodesia]], 1899]]
[[File:Prempeh-124-palaver-and-submission.jpg|thumb|Following the [[Fourth Anglo-Ashanti War]] in 1896, the British proclaimed a protectorate over the [[Ashanti Kingdom]].]]

The British were primarily interested in maintaining secure communication lines to [[India]], which led to initial interest in [[Egypt]] and [[South Africa]]. Once these two areas were secure, it was the intent of British colonialists such as [[Cecil Rhodes]] to establish a Cape-Cairo railway and to exploit mineral and agricultural resources. Control of the [[Nile]] was viewed as a strategic and commercial advantage. Overall, by 1921, the British had control approximately 33.23% of Africa, or 3,897,920&nbsp;mi<sup>2</sup> (10,09,55,66&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>).<ref>{{Cite web |title=British Africa |url=https://www66.statcan.gc.ca/eng/1922-23/192202180178_p.%20178.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=British Africa |url=https://www66.statcan.gc.ca/eng/1922-23/192202190179_p.%20179.pdf}}</ref>

{|
|-
| valign="top" |
* [[British Egypt|Egypt]]
* [[British Military Administration (Libya)|British Cyrenaica]] (1943–1951, now part of [[Libya]])
* [[British Military Administration (Libya)|British Tripolitania]] (1943–1951, now part of [[Libya]])
* [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan]] (1899–1956)
* [[British Somaliland]] (now part of [[Somalia]])
* [[British East Africa]]:
** [[Kenya Colony]]
** [[Uganda Protectorate]]
** [[Tanzania]] :
*** [[Tanganyika Territory]] (1919–61)
*** [[Zanzibar]]
* [[British Mauritius]]
* [[Bechuanaland]] (now [[Botswana]])
* [[Southern Rhodesia]] (now [[Zimbabwe]])
* [[Northern Rhodesia]] (now [[Zambia]])
* [[History of Seychelles#British rule|British Seychelles]]
* [[Union of South Africa|British South Africa]]
** [[South Africa]]:
*** [[Transvaal Colony]]
*** [[Cape Colony]]
*** [[Colony of Natal]]
*** [[Orange River Colony]]
** [[South-West Africa]] (from 1915, now [[Namibia]])
* [[British West Africa]]
** [[Gambia Colony and Protectorate]]
** [[Sierra Leone Colony and Protectorate|British Sierra Leone]]
** [[Colonial Nigeria]]
** [[British Togoland]] (1916–56, today part of [[Ghana]])
** [[Cameroons]] (1922–61, now part of [[Cameroon]] and [[Nigeria]])
** [[Gold Coast (British colony)]] (now [[Ghana]])
* [[Nyasaland]] (now [[Malawi]])
* [[Basutoland]] (now [[Lesotho]])
* [[Swaziland Protectorate|Swaziland]] (now [[Eswatini]])
* [[Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha]]
|}

====Independent states====
Liberia was founded, colonized, established, and controlled by the [[American Colonization Society]], a private organisation established in order to relocate freed [[African Americans|African American]] and Caribbean slaves from the United States and the Caribbean islands in 1822.<ref>{{Cite web |title=AMERICA'S AFRICAN COLONY: A HISTORY OF LIBERIA |date=24 February 2021 |url=https://www.ourcityforest.org/blog/2021/2/23/americas-african-colony-a-history-of-liberia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/african/afam002.html|title=Colonization - The African-American Mosaic Exhibition {{!}} Exhibitions (Library of Congress)|date=2010-07-23|website=www.loc.gov|access-date=2019-12-25}}</ref> Liberia declared its independence from the American Colonization Society on July 26, 1847.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Constitution of the Republic of Liberia: July 26, 1847 as Amended to May 1955|publisher=M. Nijhoff|year=1965}}</ref> Liberia is Africa's oldest republic and the second-oldest black republic in the world (after Haiti). Liberia maintained its independence during the period as it was viewed by European powers as either a territory, colony<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Allan Forbes|first=Edgar|date=September 1910|title=Notes on the Only American Colony in the World|journal=National Geographic Magazine|volume=September 1910|via=JSTOR}}</ref> or protectorate of the United States.

The same powers assumed Ethiopia to be a protectorate of Italy although the country had never accepted this, and its independence from Italy was recognized after the [[Battle of Adwa]] which resulted in the [[Treaty of Addis Ababa]] in 1896.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tesfatours.com/adwa-day-in-ethiopia/|title=Adwa Day in Ethiopia {{!}} Tesfa Tours|last=Chapman|first=Mark|date=2 March 2018|website=www.tesfatours.com|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-25}}</ref> With the exception of Italian occupation between 1936 and 1941 by [[Benito Mussolini]]'s military forces, Ethiopia is Africa's oldest independent nation.

===Connections to modern-day events===
{{Further|Decolonisation of Africa|Neocolonialism}}
[[File:Sudan Map Oelgas.png|thumb|upright|Oil and gas concessions in the [[Sudan]] – 2004]]

Anti-neoliberal scholars connect the old scramble to a new scramble for Africa, coinciding with the emergence of an "Afro-neoliberal" capitalist movement in postcolonial Africa.{{Sfn|Southall|Melber|2009|p=40}} When African nations began to gain independence after World War II, their postcolonial economic structures remained undiversified and linear. In most cases, the bulk of a nation's economy relied on [[cash crop]]s or [[natural resource]]s. These scholars claim that the decolonisation process kept independent African nations at the mercy of colonial powers by structurally dependent economic relations. They also claim that structural adjustment programs led to the privatization and liberalization of many African political and economic systems, forcefully pushing Africa into the global capitalist market, and that these factors led to development under Western ideological systems of economics and politics.{{Sfn|Southall|Melber|2009|pp=41–45}}

===Petrostates===
In the era of [[globalization]], several African countries have emerged as [[petrostate]]s (for example Angola, Cameroon, Nigeria, and Sudan). These are nations with an economic and political partnership between transnational oil companies and the ruling elite class in oil-rich African nations.{{Sfn|Southall|Melber|2009|pp=46–47}} Numerous countries have entered into a [[neocolonialism|neo-imperial]] relationship with Africa during this time period. Mary Gilmartin notes that "material and symbolic appropriation of space [is] central to imperial expansion and control"; nations in the globalization era who invest in controlling land internationally are engaging in neocolonialism.<ref>Gallaher, Carolyn et al. "Key Concepts in Political Geography", London: Sage Printing Press, 2009: 123</ref> Chinese (and other Asian countries) state oil companies have entered Africa's highly competitive oil sector. [[China National Petroleum Corporation]] purchased 40% of Greater Nile Petroleum Operating Company. Furthermore, the Sudan exports 50–60% of its domestically produced oil to China, making up 7% of China's imports. China has also been purchasing equity shares in African oil fields, invested in industry related infrastructure development and acquired continental oil concessions throughout Africa.{{Sfn|Southall|Melber|2009|p=192}}

==See also==
{{Portal|History|Africa}}

===Lists===
* [[Chronology of Western colonialism]]
* [[List of European colonies in Africa]]
* [[List of kingdoms in Africa throughout history]]
* [[List of former sovereign states]]
* [[List of French possessions and colonies]]

===Other topics===
* [[Analysis of Western European colonialism and colonization]]
* [[Durand Line]]
* [[Economic history of Africa]]
* [[French colonial empire]]
* [[Historiography of the British Empire]]
* [[International relations (1814–1919)]]
* [[Scramble for China]]
* [[Sykes–Picot Agreement]]
* [[White Africans of European ancestry]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

===Works cited===
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Brantlinger |first=Patrick |title=Victorians and Africans: The Genealogy of the Myth of the Dark Continent |journal=Critical Inquiry |volume=12 |issue=1 |date=1985 |pages=166–203 |jstor=1343467 |s2cid=161311164 |doi=10.1086/448326 |url=http://www.uwf.edu/dearle/imperialadventure/imperial%20adventure/documents/brantlinger%20victorians%20and%20africans.pdf }}
* {{cite book |last=Hochschild |first=Adam |author-link=Adam Hochschild |title=[[King Leopold's Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror, and Heroism in Colonial Africa]] |publisher=Pan Books |location=London |year=2006 |orig-year=1998 |isbn=978-0-330-44198-8}}
* {{Cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Pakenham (historian) |title= The Scramble for Africa: The White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |title-link=The Scramble for Africa (book) |location=London |publisher=Abacus |date=1991 |ol=9863165M |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Robinson |first1=Ronald |first2=John |last2=Gallagher |last3=Denny |first3=Alice |title=Africa and the Victorians: The official mind of imperialism |publisher=Macmillan |date=1961 |ol=17989466M |edition=2 |isbn=9780333310069}}
* {{cite book |last=Shillington |first=Kevin |title=History of Africa |date=2005 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-333-59957-0}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Southall |first1=Roger |last2=Melber |first2=Henning |author-link=Henning Melber |title=A New Scramble For Africa?: Imperialism, Investment and Development |publisher=University of KwaZulu-Natal Press |date=2009}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* Aldrich, Robert. ''Greater France: A History of French Overseas Expansion'' (1996)
* Atkinson, David. "Constructing Italian Africa: Geography and Geopolitics". ''Italian colonialism'' (2005): 15–26.
* Axelson, Eric. ''Portugal and the Scramble for Africa: 1875–1891'' (Johannesburg, Witwatersrand UP, 1967)
* Betts, Raymond F., ed. ''The scramble for Africa: causes and dimensions of empire'' (Heath, 1972), short excerpts from historians. [https://archive.org/details/scrambleforafric0000bett online]
* Boddy-Evans, Alistair. "What Caused the Scramble for Africa?" ''African History'' (2012). [https://www.seal-pa.org/hs/staff/teachers/wswitala/courses/wahg2/SiteAssets/SitePages/colonial/What%20Caused%20the%20Scramble%20for%20Africa%20KINDLE.pdf online]
* Chamberlain, Muriel Evelyn. ''The scramble for Africa'' (4th ed. Routledge, 2014) [https://www.amazon.com/Scramble-Africa-Seminar-Studies/dp/1408220148/ excerpt and text search]; also [https://archive.org/details/scrambleforafric0000cham/page/n3/mode/2up complete text of 2nd edition 1999]
* Curtin, Philip D. ''Disease and empire: The health of European Troops in the Conquest of Africa'' ([[Cambridge University Press]], 1998)
* Darwin, John. "Imperialism and the Victorians: The dynamics of territorial expansion." ''English Historical Review'' (1997) 112#447 pp.&nbsp;614–42.
* Finaldi, Giuseppe. ''Italian National Identity in the Scramble for Africa: Italy's African Wars in the Era of Nation-building, 1870–1900'' (Peter Lang, 2009)
* Förster, Stig, Wolfgang Justin Mommsen, and Ronald Edward Robinson, eds. ''Bismarck, Europe and Africa: The Berlin Africa conference 1884–1885 and the onset of partition'' ([[Oxford University Press]], 1988) [https://archive.org/details/bismarckeuropeandafricatheberlinafricaconference18841885andtheonsetofpartitionst online]
* Gifford, Prosser, and William Roger Louis. ''France and Britain in Africa: Imperial Rivalry and Colonial Rule'' (1971)
* Gifford, Prosser, and William Roger Louis. ''Britain and Germany in Africa: Imperial rivalry and colonial rule'' (1967) [https://archive.org/details/britaingermanyin0000unse/page/n5/mode/2up online].
* {{cite journal |last=Gjersø |first=Jonas Fossli |title=The Scramble for East Africa: British Motives Reconsidered, 1884–95 |journal=Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History |volume=43 |issue=5 |pages=831–860 |date=2015 |s2cid=143514840 |doi=10.1080/03086534.2015.1026131 |doi-access=free}}
* Hammond, Richard James. ''Portugal and Africa, 1815–1910: a study in uneconomic imperialism'' ([[Stanford University Press]], 1966) [https://archive.org/details/portugalafrica180000hamm online]
* Henderson, W.O. ''The German Colonial Empire, 1884–1919'' (London: Frank Cass, 1993)
* Hinsley, F.H. ed. ''The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 11: Material Progress and World-Wide Problems, 1870–98'' (1962) [http://library.mpib-berlin.mpg.de/toc/z2010_334.pdf contents] pp.&nbsp;593–40.
* Klein, Martin A. ''Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa'' (Cambridge University Press, 1998)
* Koponen, Juhani, ''The Partition of Africa: A Scramble for a Mirage?'' Nordic Journal of African Studies, 2, no. 1 (1993): 134.
* Lewis, David Levering. ''The race to Fashoda : European colonialism and African resistance in the scramble for Africa'' (1988) [https://archive.org/details/racetofashodaeur0000lewi_u0m1 online]
* Lovejoy, Paul E. ''Transformations in slavery: a history of slavery in Africa'' (Cambridge University Press, 2011)
* Lloyd, Trevor Owen. ''Empire: the history of the British Empire'' (2001).
* Mackenzie J.M. ''The Partition of Africa, 1880–1900, and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century'' (London 1983) [https://archive.org/details/partitionofafric0000mack online]
* Middleton, Lamar. ''The Rape Of Africa'' (London, 1936) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.77361/page/n207/mode/2up online]
* Minawi, Mustafa. ''The Ottoman Scramble for Africa Empire and Diplomacy in the Sahara and the Hijaz'' (2016) [https://archive.org/details/kaoikaprophe007_gmail_20180922 online]
* Oliver, Roland, ''Sir Harry Johnston and the Scramble for Africa'' (1959) [https://archive.org/details/sirharryjohnston0000oliv online]
* Penrose, E.F., ed. ''European Imperialism and the Partition of Africa'' (London, 1975).
* Perraudin, Michael, and Jürgen Zimmerer, eds. ''German colonialism and national identity'' (London: Taylor & Francis, 2010).
* Porter, Andrew,  ed. ''The Oxford history of the British Empire: The nineteenth century. Vol. 3'' (1999)  [https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofthebritishempirevol3_829_k online] pp 624–650.
* Robinson, Ronald, and John Gallagher. "The partition of Africa", in ''The New Cambridge Modern History'' vol XI, pp.&nbsp;593–640 (Cambridge, 1962).
* Rotberg, Robert I. ''The Founder: Cecil Rhodes and the Pursuit of Power'' (1988) [https://www.amazon.com/The-Founder-Cecil-Rhodes-Pursuit/dp/0195066685/ excerpt and text search];
* Sarr, Felwine, and Savoy, Bénédicte, ''The Restitution of African Cultural Heritage, Toward a New Relational Ethics'' (2018) http://restitutionreport2018.com/sarr_savoy_en.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326204535/http://restitutionreport2018.com/sarr_savoy_en.pdf |date=2021-03-26 }}
* Sanderson, G.N., "The European partition of Africa: Coincidence or conjuncture?" ''Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History'' (1974) 3#1 pp.&nbsp;1–54.
* Stoecker, Helmut. ''German imperialism in Africa: From the beginnings until the Second World War'' (Hurst & Co., 1986.)
* Thomas, Antony. ''Rhodes: The Race for Africa'' (1997) [https://www.amazon.com/Rhodes-Race-Africa-Antony-Thomas/dp/0312169825/  excerpt and text search]
* Thompson, Virginia, and Richard Adloff. ''French West Africa'' (Stanford University Press, 1958)
* Vandervort, Bruce. ''Wars of Imperial Conquest in Africa, 1830―1914'' ([[Indiana University Press]], 2009).
* Wesseling, H.L. and [[Arnold J. Pomerans]]. ''Divide and rule: The partition of Africa, 1880–1914'' (Praeger, 1996.)
{{Refend}}

===Primary sources===
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* Brooke-Smith, Robin. '' Documents And Debate: The Scramble For Africa'' (Macmillan Education, 1987) [https://archive.org/details/DocumentsAndDebatesRobinBrookeSmithB.A.M.Sc.auth.TheScrambleForAfricaMacmillanEducationUK1987 online]
* Chamberlain. M.E. ''The Scramble for Africa'' (2nd ed. 1999) pp 94–125 [https://archive.org/details/scrambleforafric0000cham/page/n3/mode/2up online]
{{Refend}}

==External links==
* {{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/jul/13/humanities.artsandhumanities|newspaper=The Guardian|date=13 July 2002|title=Belgium exhumes its colonial demons|last1=Osborn|first1=Andrew}}
* {{cite thesis|url=https://edoc.hu-berlin.de/docviews/abstract.php?id=42990|last=Gülstorff|first=Torben|year=2016|place=Berlin|title=Trade follows Hallstein? Deutsche Aktivitäten im zentralafrikanischen Raum des Second Scramble.|doi=10.18452/17628}}
* {{cite news|last=Fischer|first=Hilke|date=25 February 2015|title=130 years ago: carving up Africa in Berlin|work=Deutsche Welle|url=https://www.dw.com/en/130-years-ago-carving-up-africa-in-berlin/a-18278894|access-date=6 June 2021}}

{{Africa topics}}

{{Great Power diplomacy}}

{{World War I}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Scramble For Africa}}
[[Category:19th century in Africa]]
[[Category:19th century in international relations]]
[[Category:20th century in international relations]]
[[Category:European colonisation of Africa]]
[[Category:Geopolitical rivalry]]
[[Category:Partition (politics)]]
[[Category:Political geography]]
[[Category:History of Africa]]
[[Category:History of international relations]]
[[Category:New Imperialism]]
[[Category:David Livingstone]]
[[Category:20th century in Africa]]
[[Category:Western culture]]