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{{Lead rewrite|date=July 2023|reason=Does not adequately summarize the body of the article.}}
[[File:Medinaceli Actium reliefs 02.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Relief]] commemorating the naval [[Battle of Actium]] in 31&nbsp;BC (early 1st century, extensively restored)]]

[[Ancient Rome]] had a variety of ships that played crucial roles in its [[Military of ancient Rome|military]], [[Ancient Roman trade|trade]], and transportation activities.{{sfn|Labate|2017|loc=Conclusion}} Rome was preceded in the use of the sea by other ancient, seafaring [[History of the Mediterranean region#Classical antiquity|civilizations of the Mediterranean]]. The [[galley]] was a long, narrow, highly maneuverable ship powered by oarsmen, sometimes stacked in multiple levels such as [[bireme]]s or [[trireme]]s, and many of which also had sails. Initial efforts of the Romans to construct a war fleet were based on copies of Carthaginian warships. In the [[Punic wars]] in the mid-third century BCE, the Romans were at first outclassed by Carthage at sea, but by 256 BCE had drawn even and fought the wars to a stalemate. In 55 BCE [[Julius Caesar]] used warships and transport ships to [[Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain|invade Britain]]. Numerous types of transport ships were used to carry foodstuffs or other trade goods around the Mediterranean, many of which did double duty and were pressed into service as warships or troop transports in time of war.

== Introduction ==

=== Terminology ===

Roman ships are named in different ways, often in compound expressions with the word {{lang|la|navis|lit=ship}}. These are found in many ancient Roman texts, and named in different ways, such as by the appearance of the ship: for example, {{lang|la|navis tecta}} (covered ship); or by its function, for example: {{lang|la|navis mercatoria}} (commerce ship), or {{lang|la|navis praedatoria}} (plunder ship). Others, like {{lang|la|navis frumentaria}} (grain), {{lang|la|navis lapidaria}} (stones), and {{lang|la|navis vivaria}} (live fish), are about the cargo. The [[Althiburos]] mosaic in Tunisia lists many types of ships.{{sfn|Carlson|2011|p=397}}

The expression {{lang|la|naves longae}} (lit. "long ships") is the plural of the noun phrase {{lang|la|navis longa}} ("long ship"), following the rules for pluralization of feminine, [[Latin declension#Third declension|third declension]] nouns in Latin, and inflectional agreement of the adjective ''[[wikt:longus|longus]]'' to match.

=== Scope ===

In modern [[historiography]], ''ancient Rome'' refers to [[Roman people|Roman]] civilization from the founding of the Italian city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the [[Fall of the Western Roman Empire|collapse]] of the [[Western Roman Empire]] in the 5th century AD. It encompasses the [[Roman Kingdom]] (753–509 BC), [[Roman Republic]] (509–27 AD), and [[Roman Empire]] (27 AD–476 AD) until the fall of the western empire.{{sfn|Petit et al.|2023|loc=ancient Rome}}

== History ==

=== Punic wars ===
The [[First Punic War]] between Rome and [[Ancient Carthage|Carthage]] began in 264&nbsp;BC with the Romans landing on Sicily.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|pp=48–49}} The Romans had the stronger army, while Carthage had overwhelming maritime superiority.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=179}} By 260&nbsp;BC the war had reached a stalemate, as the Carthaginians focused on defending their well-fortified Sicilian towns and cities; these were mostly on the coast and so could be supplied and reinforced without the Romans being able to use their superior army to interdict.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=64–66}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=97}} The focus of the war shifted to the sea, where the Romans had little experience; on the few occasions they had previously felt the need for a naval presence they had usually relied on small [[Squadron (naval)|squadrons]] provided by their Latin or Greek allies. Warships of the time were specialised vessels known as [[galley]]s and which relied on [[oar]]s for maneuverability.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=179}}{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=66}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=91–92, 97}} The Romans set out to construct a [[Roman navy|war fleet]] and used a shipwrecked Carthaginian [[quinquereme]] as a blueprint for their own.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=97, 99–100}} As novice [[Shipbuilding|shipwrights]], the Romans built copies that were heavier than the Carthaginian vessels, and so slower and less maneuverable.{{sfn|Murray|2011|p=69}}

There were repeated naval clashes during the rest of the war, including the 256&nbsp;BC [[battle of Ecnomus]], possibly the largest naval battle in history by the number of combatants involved.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=110–111}}{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=87}}{{sfn|Tipps|1985|p=436}} In 241&nbsp;BC the Romans destroyed the Carthaginian fleet at the [[Battle of the Aegates Islands]],{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=196}}{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=96}} forcing the cut-off Carthaginian troops on Sicily to negotiate for peace and ending the war.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=157}}{{sfn|Scullard|2006|p=565}} The Romans and Carthaginians now had rough equivalence in terms of naval strength in the western Mediterranean.{{sfn|Collins|1998|p=13}}

=== Invasions of Britain ===
{{Main|Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain}}

Julius Caesar employed warships and transport ships in order to carry out his invasion of Britain in 55 BCE.
{{excerpt|Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain|Planning and reconnaissance|paragraphs=3|inline=yes|files=no|hat=no}}{{sfn|Gilliver|2003|p=}}

=== Battle of Actium ===
{{Main|Battle of Actium}}

{{excerpt|Galley|Roman Imperial era|only=paragraph|references=no|inline=yes|hat=no}}{{sfn|Rankov|1995|pp=78–80}}
{{pb}}
{{excerpt|Galley|Roman Imperial era|paragraphs=2|references=no|inline=yes|hat=no}}{{sfn|Rankov|1995|pp=80–85}}

== Types ==
[[File:Trireme 1.jpg|thumb|Model of a Roman ''bireme'']]

The generic Roman term for an oar-driven galley warship was "long ship" (Latin: ''navis longa'', Greek: ''naus makra''), as opposed to the sail-driven ''navis oneraria'' (from ''onus, oneris: burden''), a merchant vessel, or the minor craft (''navigia minora'') like the ''scapha''.{{sfn|Saddington|2007|pp=202–203}}

=== Merchant vessels ===

The city of Rome was heavily reliant on the delivery by ship of the large amounts of grain it consumed. Rome imported about 150,000 tons of Egyptian grain each year over the first three centuries AD. Not only were insufficient amounts available in the agricultural areas around the city, but it was cheaper to transport it substantial distances by sea than short distances by land. It has been estimated that it cost less for a sailing ship of the Roman Empire to carry grain the length of the Mediterranean than to move the same amount {{convert|15|mi}} by road.{{sfn|Casson|1995|p=297}}{{efn|The distance by sea from Alexandria (the main Egyptian grain port during the Roman Empire) to Civitavecchia (the modern port for Rome) is {{convert|1142|nmi}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Alexandria - Civitavecchia distance is 1142 NM - SeaRoutes |url=https://classic.searoutes.com/routing/4294967629/4294968202?speed=20&panama=true&suez=true&kiel=true&rivers=block&roads=block |website=m.classic.searoutes.com |access-date=16 June 2022 |language=en}}</ref>}}

Merchant ships, such as ''naves onerariae'', had always been pressed into service for military purposes such as for transporting troops to North Africa in the Second Punic war.{{sfn|Charles|2005|p=297}} In 204 BCE, [[Scipio Africanus]] ordered the impressment of merchantmen for the [[Scipio Africanus#Invasion of Africa|invasion of Africa]], four hundred ships according to Livy.{{sfn|Charles|2005|p=289}}(29.26.3){{efn|Livy: {{lang|la|circum oram omnem maritimam misit ut naves onerariae comprensae Lilybaeum omnes contraheren. Livy 29.24.9}}}}

==== ''Actuaria'' ====

[[File:Actuaria Gauckler.png|thumb|Reproduction of a 3rd century depiction of an ''actuaria'' from the [[Altiburus]] mosaic. The figure towards the bow of the ship is beating the time for the rowers with a mallet; from photo by Paul Gauckler, 1911.]]
An {{lang|la|actuaria}} (short form of {{lang|la|navis actuaria}}, "ship that moves"; plural {{lang|la|naves actuariae}}) was a type of merchant galley used primarily for trade and transport throughout the Roman Empire. The {{lang|la|actuaria}} was equipped with sails as well as oars. It was more expensive to operate than merchant [[sailing ship]]s, and was used where speed and reliability were a priority. It could carry both passengers and wares such as honey, cheese, meat, and even live animals intended for [[gladiator]] combat.{{sfn|Casson|1991|pp=119–123}}

Variants of the {{lang|la|actuaria}} were used as troop transports, for example in the [[Roman conquest of Britain|invasion of Britain]]. In 47 BCE, [[Publius Vatinius]] equipped {{lang|la|actuariae}} at [[Brindisi]] with temporary [[Naval ram|rams]] to support [[Julius Caesar]]'s forces in [[Illyricum (Roman province)|Illyricum]], on the other side of the Adriatic, though these were only suitable to combat smaller enemy vessels.{{sfn|Casson|1991|pp=119–123}} {{lang|la|Actuariae}} were also employed along the major rivers by [[Germanicus]] in his campaigns against the [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] tribes around 16 AD.{{sfn|Viereck|1975|p=86}}

==== ''Navis oneraria'' ====
{{wikisourcelang|de|Orbis sensualium pictus/LXXXIX. Navis oneraria – Das Lastschiff|''Orbis Pictus'', Book 89|(in Latin and German)}}

Roman ''naves onerariae'' could have up to three square-rigged masts. They depended on the wind and could not leave port on oar power alone, where the more maneuverable galleys could. If winds were not favorable, [[Warping (sailing)|warping]] or towing were alternatives.{{sfn|Charles|2005|p=292}} There is some evidence from Claudian in ''De Bello Gildonico'' that ''naves onerariae'' were in use until late antiquity.{{sfn|Charles|2005|pp=291–292}}

Images of two ''naves onerariae'' were pictured in an [[Lod Mosaic|ancient mosaic floor]] discovered in Lod, Israel in 1996. Despite damage to the floor, students of maritime history have been able to glean a great deal of information from the images. The ships are of the ''navis oneraria'' type, a Roman merchant ship typically displacing 80–150 tons, used to carry such commodities as [[garum]] and grain from Egypt to Rome.{{sfn|Friedman|2004|pp=164–168}}

=== Transportation ===

==== ''Corbita'' ====

''Corbitae'' were grain ships going back to the Greeks in the 5th c BCE, with loads of around 150 tons. In the first century BCE, they could haul 1300 tons of grain and liquids; the latter in large amphorae. The hulls of the Roman ''corbitae'' were little changed from the Greek design, and were large, with high sides. Steering was provided via twin steering oars which were very adequate to the task, and not inferior to medieval rudders from later centuries. The oars could be boxed in to the hull with reinforced planking for protection.{{sfn|Denny|2009|p=21<!--&pg=PT34-->}}{{sfn|Bocquelet|2022}}

==== Obelisk ship ====
{{Main|Obelisk ship}}

{{excerpt|Obelisk ship|Ancient Rome|only=paragraph|hat=no}}
{{pb}}
{{excerpt|Obelisk ship|Loading of ships|hat=no}}
{{pb}}
{{excerpt|Obelisk ship|Destruction of ships|hat=no}}

=== Warships ===
{{Further|Hellenistic-era warships|Roman navy#Types of ships}}

==== Bireme ====
{{Main|Bireme}}
[[File:D473-birème romaine-Liv2-ch10.png|thumb|A [[Roman navy|Roman naval]] bireme depicted in a relief from the Temple of [[Fortuna (mythology)|Fortuna Primigenia]] in [[Praeneste]] ([[Palestrina|Palastrina]])]]
Biremes were typically about 80 feet (24 m) long with a maximum beam width of around 10 feet (3 m).{{cn|reason=see [[Bireme]].|date=July 2023}}
{{excerpt|Bireme|Uses|paragraphs=1|references=no|inline=yes|hat=no}}{{sfn|Casson|1995|pp=57–58}}

==== ''Liburna'' ====
{{Main|Liburna}}
{{excerpt|Liburna|only=paragraph|references=no|inline=yes|files=no|hat=no}}{{sfn|Starr|1941|p=54 et seq.}}

Originally, the {{lang|la|liburna}} was similar to the [[ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] [[penteconter]].{{sfn|Starr|1941|p=54}} It had one bench with 25 oars on each side, while in the late [[Roman Republic]], it was equipped with two banks of oars (a [[bireme]]), remaining faster, lighter, and more agile than [[trireme]]s.{{sfn|Starr|1941|p=54}} The liburna design was adopted by the Romans and became a key part of the [[Roman navy]] in the second half of the 1st century BCE. ''Liburnae'' played a key role in the [[Battle of Actium]] in [[Greece]] (31 BCE), which saw the establishment of [[Augustus]] as the undisputed ruler of the Roman world.{{cn|date=July 2023}}
 
The architecture of the {{lang|la|liburna}} differed from that of the battle triremes, [[quadrireme]]s and [[quinquereme]]s.{{sfn|Starr|1941|p=54}}{{sfn|Zaninović|1988|pp=46–47}} It was {{convert|109|ft|m|0|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|5|m|0|abbr=on}} wide with a {{convert|1|m|abbr=on|-1}} draft. Two rows of oarsmen pulled 18 oars per side. The ship could make up to fourteen knots under sail and more than seven knots under oar power.{{sfn|Gabriel|2007|pp=36–43}}

After adopting the {{lang|la|liburna}}, the Romans made adaptations to add rams and protection from missiles, in order to improve the ships' use as navy ships. The benefits gained more than made up for the slight loss of speed.{{sfn|Morrison|Coates|2016|pp=170, 317}}

The Romans made use of the {{lang|la|liburna}} particularly within the provinces of the empire, where the ships formed the majority of the fleet,{{sfn|Casson|1971|p=141}}{{sfn|Morrison|Coates|2016|p=171}}{{sfn|Starr|1941|p=54ff}} while it was included in smaller numbers in fleets in [[Ravenna]] and [[Misenum]], where a large number of the Illyrians were serving.{{cn|date=July 2023}}

{{replace|{{excerpt|Liburna|History|paragraphs=5|inline=yes|files=no|references=no}}|liburnae|''liburna''}}{{sfn|Zaninović|1988|p=47}}{{efn|name="Zaninovic quote"}}

==== ''Navis lusoria'' ====
[[File:Roemerschiff1.jpg|thumb|A reconstructed {{lang|la|navis lusoria}} at the [[Museum of Ancient Seafaring]], Mainz]]
{{Main|Navis lusoria}}

A {{lang|la|navis lusoria}}{{efn|{{lang|la|navis lusoria}}: {{ety|la||dancing/playful ship}}, plural {{lang|la|naves lusoriae}}.}} is a type of a small military vessel of the late Roman Empire that served as a [[troopship|troop transport]]. It was powered by about thirty soldier-oarsmen and an auxiliary sail. Nimble, graceful, and of shallow draft, such a vessel was used on northern rivers close to the ''[[Limes Germanicus]]'', the Germanic borderlands, and thus saw service on the [[Rhine]] and the [[Danube]]. Roman historian [[Ammianus Marcellinus]] mentioned the ''navis lusoria'' in his writings,{{sfn|Ammianus|Yonge|1862|loc=2-§12}}{{sfn|Bierweiler}} but not much was learned about them until the discovery of such boats at Mainz, Germany in 1981–82.{{sfn|Höckmann|1993|p=}}

Olaf Höckmann claimed that the Mainz boats are probably {{lang|la|lusoriae}}, and have some architectural similarity with earlier liburnae. The type A Mainz ships 1 and 7 appear to be identical in form to the ships Ammianus Marcellinus described in his reports on 4th century Rhine battle vessels, and which he always referred to as {{lang|la|naves lusioriae}}.{{sfn|Höckmann|1993|p=131}} Höckmann finds that ships 1, 4, 7, and 9 are likely lusoriae.{{sfn|Höckmann|1993|p=131}}<!-- and footnotes Ammianus 17.3.3, 18.2.12 in Höckmann fn.[4], p. 131.-->

==== Quinqueremes ====
{{Main|Quinqueremes}}
[[Quinqueremes]], meaning "five-oared" and indicating that there were five oarsmen per bank of oars, were the first warships the Romans built{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=98}} and provided the workhorse of the Roman fleet throughout the [[Punic Wars]].{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|pp=27–28}} So ubiquitous was this type of ship that the historian [[Polybius]] uses it as a shorthand for "warship" in general.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=104}} [[Hexareme]]s (six oarsmen per bank), [[quadriremes]] (four oarsmen per bank) and triremes (three oarsmen per bank) are occasionally mentioned in the sources.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=104}} A quinquereme carried a crew of 300: 280 oarsmen and 20 deck crew and officers.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=100}} It would also normally carry a complement of 40 marines{{snd}}usually soldiers assigned to the ship{{sfn|Tipps|1985|p=435}}{{snd}}if battle was thought to be imminent this would be increased to as many as 120.{{sfn|Casson|1995b|p=121}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=102–103}}

[[Image:Trireme cut-fr.svg|thumb|upright=1.1|right|alt=A diagram depicting the positions of the rowers of the three different oars in a trireme|Cross-sectional diagram of a [[trireme]], showing the positions of the rowers in one file]]
The quinquereme was a [[galley]], {{circa}} {{convert|45|m|ft|sigfig=2}} long, {{circa}} {{convert|5|m|ft}} wide at water level, with its deck standing {{circa}} {{convert|3|m|ft|sigfig=1}} above the sea, and displacing around 100 [[tonne]]s (110 [[short tons]]; 100 [[long tons]]). Galley expert [[John Coates (naval architect)|John Coates]] suggested that they could maintain {{convert|7|kn|mph km/h|abbr=on}} for extended periods.{{sfn|Coates|1995|p=138}}{{page needed|reason=This was originally sourced to Coates-2004 p. 138 (oclc=0851779557), altered to Coates-1995 in rev. 1180629934; is page 138 valid for the 1995 edition?|date=October 2023}} The modern replica galley ''Olympias'' has achieved speeds of {{convert|8.5|kn|mph km/h|abbr=on}} and cruised at {{convert|4|kn|mph km/h|sigfig=2}} for hours on end.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=98}} Average speeds of {{convert|5–6|knots|mph km/h}} were recorded on contemporary voyages of up to a week.{{sfn|Casson|1995|p=283}}

The generally accepted theory regarding the arrangement of oarsmen in quinqueremes is that there would be sets – or files – of three oars, one above the other, with two oarsmen on each of the two uppermost oars and one on the lower, for a total of five oarsmen per file. This would be repeated down the side of a galley for a total of 28 files on each side; thus 28 × 3 × 2 or 168 oars in total.{{sfn|Casson|1995|p=101}}

Getting the oarsmen to row as a unit, let alone to execute more complex battle maneuvers, required long and arduous training.{{sfn|Casson|1995b|pp=278–280}} At least half of the oarsmen would need to have had some experience if the ship was to be handled effectively.{{sfn|de Souza|2008|p=358}} As a result, the Romans were initially at a disadvantage against the more experienced Carthaginians. To counter this, the Romans introduced the [[corvus (weapon)|''corvus'']], a bridge {{convert|1.2|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=off}} wide and {{convert|11|m|ft|abbr=off}} long, with a heavy spike on the underside of the free end, which was designed to pierce and anchor into an enemy ship's deck.{{sfn|Casson|1995b|p=121}} This allowed Roman legionaries acting as marines to [[Naval boarding|board enemy ships]] and capture them, rather than employing the previously [[Naval tactics in the Age of Galleys|traditional tactic]] of [[ramming]].{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=178}}

All warships were equipped with rams. See details at {{slink||Ramming}}.

==== Trireme ====
{{Main|Trireme}}<!--
[[File:Romtrireme.jpg|thumb|A [[Roman mosaic]] from [[Tunisia]] showing a trireme vessel during the [[Roman Empire]]]]-->

A trireme was a type of [[galley]] with three tiers of oars that was used by the ancient maritime civilizations of the [[Mediterranean Sea]], especially the [[Phoenicians]], [[ancient Greece|ancient Greeks]] and [[ancient Rome|Romans]].{{sfn|Coates|2000|pp=127–230}}{{sfn|Welsh|1988}}

==== Others ====

* ''camarae'': a flat-hulled, double ended, low freeboard ship from the eastern Black Sea (1st century CE) with 25 to 30 men; could be rowed in either direction{{sfn|Pitassi|2011|p=180}}
* ''cybaea'' – used in Sicily first century BC{{sfn|Pitassi|2011|p=180}}
* [[lembus]] – a small, fast, and maneuverable, light [[Illyrian warfare|Illyrian warship]], capable of carrying 50 men in addition to the rowers. It was the galley used by [[Illyria]]n pirates{{sfn|Wilkes|1995|pp=157, 163}}
* ''moneres'' – single-row oared vessels{{sfn|Bocquelet|2022}}
* ''phaseli'' – sailing passenger ferries first centuries BCE and CE{{sfn|Pitassi|2011|p=180}}
* ''vectoria'' - passenger ferry second century CE{{sfn|Pitassi|2011|p=180}}
* Roman penteconter – the name of the Greek [[penteconter]] was not romanized for the Roman version of this ship.{{sfn|Bocquelet|2022}}

== Naval tactics ==
{{Main|Oared vessel tactics}}

Major tactics of naval vessels in combat included physically ramming the enemy boats, brushing alongside with oars retracted to break their oars, or attempting to board them and engage in hand-to-hand combat.

=== Boarding ===
[[File:Corvus.svg|left|thumb|alt=A diagram showing the location and usage of a {{lang|la|corvus}} on a Roman galley.|The ''[[corvus (weapon)|corvus]]'', the Roman [[Naval boarding|ship boarding]] device]]
{{excerpt|Oared vessel tactics|Boarding|paragraphs=1|references=no|inline=yes|hat=no}}{{sfn|Morrison|Coates|Rankov|2000|pp=48–49}}
{{pb}}
The [[Roman Navy|Romans]] baffled the ramming tactics of the Carthaginians by the invention of the [[Corvus (weapon)|''corvus'']], or crow, a plank with a spike for hooking onto enemy ships which grappled the prow of the rammer, and provided a gangway for boarders.{{sfn|Hannay|1911|loc=Navy}} The Romans did continue their boarding tactics in the naval battles of the Punic Wars, but are also reported as ramming the Carthaginian vessels after the abandonment of the corvus. An older and alternative way for boarding was the use of grappling hooks and planks, also a more flexible system than the corvus. Agrippa introduced a weapon with a function similar to the corvus, the [[harpax]].{{sfn|Hannay|1911|loc=Navy}}

=== Ramming ===
{{Further|Naval ram}}

In antiquity, the naval ram was a weapon that dominated Mediterranean naval warfare for nearly five hundred years. The use and devastating force of the ram is evidenced in the ancient sources, but the former weapon was not discovered by archaeologists until the 1980s.{{sfn|DeCasien|2019}}

All warships were equipped with rams, a triple set of {{convert|60|cm|ft|sigfig=1|adj=mid |-wide }} bronze blades weighing up to {{convert|270|kg|lb|sigfig=2}} positioned at the waterline. In the century prior to the Punic Wars, boarding had become increasingly common and ramming had declined, as the [[Hellenistic-era warships|larger and heavier vessels]] adopted in this period lacked the speed and manoeuvrability necessary to ram, while their sturdier construction reduced the ram's effect even in case of a successful attack. The Roman adaptation of the {{lang|la|corvus}} was a continuation of this trend and compensated for their initial disadvantage in ship-manoeuvring skills. The added weight in the prow compromised both the ship's manoeuvrability and its seaworthiness, and in rough sea conditions the {{lang|la|corvus}} became useless.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=178}}{{sfn|Wallinga|1956|pp=77–90}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=100–101, 103}} In 255 BC the Romans lost 384 ships from a fleet of 464 warships off the south-east corner of Sicily, more than 100,000 men were lost.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=115}}{{sfn|Tipps|1985|p=438}}{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=189}} It is possible that the presence of the [[Corvus (boarding device)|corvus]] made the Roman ships unusually [[unseaworthy]]; there is no record of them being used after this disaster.{{sfn|Scullard|2006|p=557}}{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|pp=112, 117}}

Ramming was done by smashing into the rear or side of an enemy ship, punching a hole in the planking. This did not actually sink an ancient galley unless it was heavily laden with cargo and stores. With a normal load, it was buoyant enough to float even with a breached hull.{{sfn|Casson|1991|p=139}} War galleys gradually began to develop heavier hulls with reinforcing beams at the waterline, where a ram would most likely hit. Besides ramming, breaking enemy oars was also a way to impede mobility and make it easier to drive home a successful ramming attack.{{sfn|Coates|1995|p=133}}

Success in ramming depended so much on a combination of skill and good fortune that it played a somewhat subordinate part in most ancient sea fights.{{sfn|Hannay|1911|loc=Navy}}

{{excerpt|Oared vessel tactics|Middle Ages|paragraphs=1|files=no|references=no|inline=yes|hat=no}}{{sfn|Hocker|1995|pp=86–100}}

Dozens of bronze Carthaginian and Roman rams from the period have been found;{{sfn|Tusa|Royal|2012|p=12}} see {{slink||Punic War rams}} below.

== Shipbuilding ==
{{Further|Ancient shipbuilding techniques}}
{{expand section|small=no|find=Roman Empire|find2=shipbuilding|date=July 2023}}

[[File:Mortise tenon joint hull trireme-en.svg|thumb|The [[mortise and tenon]] joint method of [[Hull (watercraft)|hull]] construction employed in [[ancient navies and vessels|ancient vessels]]]]

When the Romans first engaged with the Carthaginians, they knew nothing about shipbuilding, and their early war-vessels were merely copies of those used by the Carthaginians, which were of the same general type as the Greek galleys. The first Roman fleet appears to have consisted of quinqueremes.{{sfn|Holmes|1906|p=36}}

{{str rep|{{excerpt|Trireme|Construction|only=paragraph|files=no|hat=no}}|(''hypozōmata'')|}}

During the [[First Punic War]], the [[Duumviri navales|admiralty]] of the [[Roman Republic]] conceived new and progressive ways of fleet construction, development and composition in order to successfully engage the [[Military of Carthage|Carthaginian navy]]. Victories at the [[Battle of Mylae]], the [[Battle of Cape Ecnomus]], the [[Battle of Cape Hermaeum]] and the [[Battle of the Aegates]] encouraged the Romans to pursue [[Naval tactics|naval-based]] warfare and strategies in order to push the center of combat to the Carthaginian heartland in North Africa.{{sfn|Casson|1995|p=105}}{{sfn|Tusa|Royal|2012}}

=== Capacity ===

Large numbers of ships could be constructed in a short time: 600 hundred oared transport ships were built in one winter for Caesar's planned invasion of Britain.{{sfn|Charles|2005|p=297<!--footnote on Caesar's Gallic Wars, 5.2.2-->}}

== Wrecks and relics ==
{{See also|Archaeology of shipwrecks|List of surviving ancient ships}}

=== Alkedo ===
[[File:Alkedo, nave militare riutilizzata come da diporto, I-15 dc. ca. 01.jpg|thumb|Alkedo on display in the [[Museum of Ancient Ships, Pisa|Museum of Ancient Ships]]]]
{{Main|Alkedo (ship)}}
{{excerpt|Alkedo (ship)|paragraphs=1|files=no|hat=no}}

=== Arles Rhône 3 ===
{{Main|Arles Rhône 3}}
{{excerpt|Arles Rhône 3|paragraphs=1|files=Musée de l'Arles antique, Arles, France (16194233455).jpg|hat=no}}

=== Blackfriars I ===
{{Main|Blackfriars shipwrecks}}
[[File:Blackfriars I ship model.jpg|thumb|Scale model of Blackfriars I]]
{{str rep|{{excerpt|Blackfriars shipwrecks|Blackfriars I|only=paragraphs|paragraphs=1|references=no|templates=no|inline=yes|hat=no}}|on 6 September|in}}{{sfn|Heritage Gateway|2012}}

{{excerpt|Blackfriars shipwrecks|Blackfriars I|only=paragraphs|paragraphs=2|references=no|inline=yes|hat=no}}{{sfn|Heritage Gateway|2012}}

=== Black Sea ===
{{Main|Ancient Black Sea shipwrecks}}
{{str rep|{{excerpt|Ancient Black Sea shipwrecks|paragraphs=1|files=no|inline=yes|references=no|hat=no}}|[[Ancient Black Sea shipwrecks]] found in the [[Black Sea]]|Ancient shipwrecks found in the [[Black Sea]]}}{{sfn|Brennan et al.|2011}}

=== Caligula's Giant Ship ===
{{Main|Caligula's Giant Ship}}
{{excerpt|Caligula's Giant Ship|paragraphs=1|files=no|hat=no}}

=== De Meern ===
{{Main|The Ships of De Meern}}
<!-- choose an image from [[c:Category:Ancient Roman boats of De Meern]] to go here; might need more text first -->
From 1997 to 2008, a set of six vessels, consisting of varying states of preservation were discovered in the town of [[De Meern]], [[Utrecht (province)|Utrecht]], Netherlands. Some were utilized as landfill like ''The De Meern 6'', discovered in 2008, but the ''De Meern 1'', first discovered in 1997, and excavated in 2003, was determined to be run aground. The latter was in a good state of preservation with a cabin, and a toolbox. They likely served as transport of the Roman military supply chain in proximity to the [[Castellum]]s of Laurium and Nigrum Pullum. The ''De Meern 1'' on display at the Museum Hoge Woerd.{{sfn|van Holk|2011|p=}}{{sfn|Hoge Woerd|2018}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=De Meern 6 {{!}} MaSS |url=https://mass.cultureelerfgoed.nl/de-meern-6 |access-date=2023-07-18 |website=mass.cultureelerfgoed.nl}}</ref>

=== Madrague de Giens ===
{{Main|Madrague de Giens (shipwreck)}}
[[File:Madrague de Giens Roman shipwreck in the Museum of Ancient Seafaring in Mainz, Germany (48987720778).jpg|thumb|Replica of the [[Madrague de Giens (shipwreck)|Madrague de Giens]] in the [[Museum of Ancient Seafaring]] in Mainz, Germany]]
{{excerpt|Madrague de Giens (shipwreck)|paragraphs=1|files=no|hat=no}}

=== Mainz ===
{{excerpt|Navis lusoria|The Roman ships of Mainz|paragraphs=1|references=no|inline=yes|hat=no}}{{sfn|Höckmann|1993|p=}}

{{excerpt|Navis lusoria|The Roman ships of Mainz|paragraphs=2|references=no|inline=yes|hat=no}}{{cn|date=August 2023}}

Höckmann conjectured that the Mainz boats are probably {{lang|la|lusoriae}}, and have some architectural similarity with earlier {{lang|la|liburnae}}. The type A Mainz ships 1 and 7 appear to be identical in form to the ships Ammianus Marcellinus described in his reports on 4th century Rhine battle vessels, and which he always referred to as {{lang|la|naves lusioriae}}.{{sfn|Höckmann|1993|p=131}} Höckmann finds that ships 1, 4, 7, and 9 are likely lusoriae.{{sfn|Höckmann|1993|p=131}}

=== Marausa ===
{{Main|Roman ship of Marausa}}<!--
[[File:Nave romana Marausa.jpg|thumb|Wreck of the Roman ship found in Marausa (Trapani) and held in the archaeological museum of Marsala]]
-->{{excerpt|Roman ship of Marausa|paragraphs=1|files=no|hat=no}}

=== Nemi ===
{{Main|Nemi ships}}
[[File:Nemi-Schiff.jpg|thumb|The remains of a Lake Nemi ship in 1929]]
{{excerpt|Nemi ships|paragraphs=1|files=no|hat=no}}

=== Sinop D ===
{{Main|Sinop D}}
{{excerpt|Sinop D|paragraphs=1|files=no|hat=no}}

=== Punic War rams ===
{{Further|Battle of the Aegates}}
{{Cleanup|section|reason=overlap or duplicate information needs to be consolidated. |date=August 2023}}
{{Multiple image|total_width = 300
| width=200
| caption_align     =
| image_gap         = 
| image1            = Carthaginian naval ram.jpg
| caption1          = A Carthaginian [[naval ram]] showing damage attributed to collision(s) with the ram of a Roman ship.{{sfn|Curry|2012|p=37}}
| image2            = Roman naval ram.jpg
| caption2          = Bronze Roman naval ram (< 241 BCE); with the [[Victoria (mythology)|Goddess of Victory]] and inscriptions referring to two Roman officials <!-- Marcus Publicius ([[Marcus Publicius Malleolus]]?) and Gaius Papiriu-->
}}

Beginning in 2010 bronze warship [[Naval ram|rams]] have been found by archaeologists in the sea off the west coast of Sicily, near where the 241 BC [[battle of the Aegates]] is believed to have taken place; as of August 2022, twenty four have been identified, as have ten bronze helmets and hundreds of [[amphorae]].{{sfn|Tusa|Royal|2012|p=12}}{{sfn|Prag|2013}}{{sfn|Murray|2019}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Battle of the Egadi Islands Project |publisher=RPM Nautical Foundation |url=https://rpmnautical.org/projects/egadi-islands-project/}}</ref> All twenty-four rams, seven of the helmets, and six intact amphorae, along with a number of fragments, have since been recovered.{{sfn|Tusa|Royal|2012|pp=12, 26, 31–32}} Inscriptions allowed four of the rams to be identified as coming from Roman-built ships.{{sfn|Tusa|Royal|2012|p=18}} It is possible that some of these had been captured by the Carthaginians earlier in the war and were crewed by them when they were sunk.{{sfn|Tusa|Royal|2012|p=45}} It is believed that the rams were each attached to a sunken warship when they were deposited on the seabed.{{sfn|Tusa|Royal|2012|p=39}} Based on the dimensions of the recovered rams, the archaeologists who have studied them believe that they all came from triremes, contrary to Polybius's account of all of the warships involved being quinqueremes.{{sfn|Murray|2019}}{{sfn|Tusa|Royal|2012|pp=39–42}}

<!--{{excerpt|Battle of the Aegates|Marine archaeology|only=paragraphs|hat=no}}-->

=== Yassi Ada ===
{{Further|Yassi Ada}}

Three wrecks near [[Bodrum, Turkey]] have been excavated, including a 4th century Roman, and 7th century Byzantine wreck only meters away.{{sfn|Bass|van Doorninck|1971|p=27}}

{{replace|{{excerpt|Yassi Ada|Fieldwork|paragraphs=1|inline=yes|files=no|hat=no}}|metres|meters}}{{sfn|Bass|van Doorninck|1971|pp=27–29}}

== Experimental archaeology ==
{{Further info|Experimental archaeology}}

=== Olympias trireme – 1987 ===
{{Main|Olympias (trireme)}}
The [[Olympias (trireme)|''Olympias'' trireme]] is a reconstruction of an ancient Athenian trireme and an important example of [[experimental archaeology]].

{{excerpt|Olympias (trireme)|History|paragraphs=1|inline=yes|hat=no}}{{cn|date=August 2023}}

=== Lusoria – 2004 ===
{{excerpt|Navis_lusoria|Other reconstructions|paragraphs=1|inline=yes|hat=no}}{{cn|date=August 2023}}

== See also ==

{{div col|colwidth=20}}
* [[Ancient maritime history]]
* [[Ancient navies and vessels]]
* [[History of the Mediterranean region]]
* [[List of museum ships]]
* [[Maritime archaeology]]
* [[Maritime history of Europe]]
* [[Roman shipyard of Stifone (Narni)]]
* [[Siege of Syracuse (213–212 BC)]]
{{div col end}}

== References ==
;Notes
{{notelist |refs=

{{efn|name="Zaninovic quote"|1=
The ship shown on the famous so-called in the Prenestine relief kept in the Vatican Museum, dated to the period of Octavian's civil wars, according to some it also shows a liburna. Over time, "liburna" became a general name for various types of Roman ships, and in later antiquity for cargo ships. Tacitus and Suetonius use this name as a synonym for a warship. Suetonius calls the large, lavishly equipped ships, which Emperor Caligula built for his entertainment, ''deceres liburnae'' (Suet., ''Calig.'', 37). Inscriptions mention the liburna as the last in a class among ancient warships: ''hexeres'', ''penteres'', ''quadrieres'', ''trieres'', ''liburna''.{{br}}
''Lađa prikazana na poznatom tzv. prenestinskom reljefu koji se čuva u Vatikanskom muzeju, datirana u razdoblje Oktavijanovih građanskih ratova, po nekima također prikazuje liburnu. Eijekom vremena "liburna" postaje opći naziv za različite tipove rimskih brodova, a u kasnijoj antici za teretne brodove. Tacit i Svetonije upotrebljavaju to ime kao sinonim za ratni brod. Velike, raskošno opremljene lađe, što ih je sebi za zabavu sagradio ar Kaligula, Svetonije naziva deceres liburnae (Suet., ''Calig.'', 37). Natpisi spominju liburnu kao posljendnji u klasi među antičkim ratnim brodovima: ''hexeres'', ''penteres'', ''quadrieres'', ''trieres'', ''liburna.{{sfn|Zaninović|1988|p=47}}}}

}}
{{notelist}}

;Citations
{{reflist}}

== Works cited ==
{{Refbegin|30em}}

* {{cite book |author=Ammianus Marcellinus |author-link=Ammianus Marcellinus |title=Res Gestae |trans-title=Roman History |translator1-last=Yonge |translator1-first=C.D. |volume=Book XVIII |chapter=2 |publisher=Bohn |publication-place=London |date=1862 |orig-date=c. 390 |url=https://www.tertullian.org/fathers/ammianus_18_book18.htm#C2 |at=§&nbsp;12 |ref={{harvid|Ammianus|Yonge |1862}} |access-date=29 July 2023}}<!-- -->{{Reflib|lib=Asea|Bagnall-1999}}{{sfn whitelist|CITEREFBagnall1999}}<!-- -->
* {{cite journal |last1=Bass |first1=George F. |last2=van Doorninck |first2=Frederick H. |date=1971 |title=A Fourth-Century Shipwreck at Yassi Ada |journal=American Journal of Archaeology |volume=75 |number=1 |jstor=503679 |doi=10.2307/503679 |pages=27–37 |s2cid=191403303}}
* {{cite web |language=de |last=Bierweiler<!--from html page source--> |first=Jan |date=<!--unknown;earliest archive is 21 November 2004--> |title=Hintergrund – Was sind die Besonderheiten der naves lusoriae? |trans-title=Background – What are the special features of the naves lusoriae? |publisher=Universität Regensberg, Der Verein Römerschiff |url=http://www.uni-regensburg.de/Fakultaeten/phil_Fak_III/Geschichte/Alte_G/VEFAG/hintergr_04.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303205859/http://www.uni-regensburg.de/Fakultaeten/phil_Fak_III/Geschichte/Alte_G/VEFAG/hintergr_04.html |archive-date=3 March 2016}}<!-- cite as: {{sfn|Bierweiler}} -->
* {{cite web |last=Bocquelet |first=David |date=2022-10-24 |orig-date=2017-10-13 |title=Roman Ships – From SPQR to the Imperium |website=Naval Encyclopedia |publisher=<!--SPS?--> |url=https://naval-encyclopedia.com/antique-ships/roman-ships |access-date=12 July 2023}}
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* {{cite book |last=Casson |first=Lionel |date=1971 |author-link=Lionel Casson |title=Ships and Seamanship in the Ancient World |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sDpMh0gK2OUC |isbn=9780691035369 |oclc=141594}}
* {{cite book |last=Casson |first=Lionel |date=December 1, 1995 |author-link=Lionel Casson |title=Ships and Seamanship in the Ancient World |publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press |location=Baltimore |orig-date=1971 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sDpMh0gK2OUC |isbn=978-0-8018-5130-8 |oclc=32549371}}
<!-- -->{{Reflib|lib=Asea|Casson-1991|Catsambis-2011|Charles-2005|Coates-2000}}<!-- -->
{{sfn whitelist |CITEREFCasson1991 |CITEREFCatsambis2011 |CITEREFCarlson2011 |CITEREFCharles2005 |CITEREFCoates2000}}{{cite whitelink|CITEREFDelgado2011}}<!-- -->
* {{cite book|last=Collins|first=Roger |author-link=Roger Collins|title=Spain: An Oxford Archaeological Guide|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0-19-285300-4}}
<!-- -->{{Reflib|lib=Asea|Curry-2012}}{{sfn whitelist|CITEREFCurry2012}}<!-- -->
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* {{cite journal |last=Gabriel |first=Richard A. |title=The Roman Navy: Masters of the Mediterranean |journal=Military History |volume=29 |number=9 |year=2007 |pages=36–43 |url=https://www.historynet.com/the-roman-navy-masters-of-the-mediterranean.htm}}
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-->
{{Reflib|lib=Asea|Goldsworthy-2006}}{{sfn whitelist|CITEREFGoldsworthy2006}}<!--
-->
* {{cite web |title=Blackfriars Ship I |date=2012 |url=https://www.heritagegateway.org.uk/Gateway/Results_Single.aspx?uid=405065&resourceID=19191 |website=Heritage Gateway |ref={{harvid|Heritage Gateway|2012}} }}
* {{Cite book |last=Holmes |first=Sir George Charles Vincent |title=Ancient and Modern Ships |date=1906 |publisher=H. M. Stationery Office |series=Victoria and Albert Museum science handbook |oclc=5268420 |url=https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&q=B-EwAQAAMAAJ }}
* {{EB1911 |last=Hannay |first=David McDowall |authorlink=David Hannay (historian) |wstitle=Navy |volume=19 }}
* {{Cite web |title=Ship and limes |date=12 November 2018 |url=https://www.museumhogewoerd.nl/en/discover/ship-and-limes/ |access-date=2023-07-18 |website=Museum Hoge Woerd |language=en-US |ref={{harvid|Hoge Woerd|2018}} }}
* {{cite journal |last=Höckmann |first=Olaf |date=May 1993 |title=Late Roman Rhine vessels from Mainz, Germany |journal=[[International Journal of Nautical Archaeology]] |publisher=Wiley |volume=22 |issue=2 |issn=1095-9270 |pages=125–135 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-9270.1993.tb00401.x |bibcode=1993IJNAr..22..125H |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1095-9270.1993.tb00401.x <!--TWL-url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1095-9270.1993.tb00401.x --> |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130105113633/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119311131/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0 |archive-date=2013-01-05}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Labate |first=Victor |date=6 March 2017 |title=Roman Shipbuilding & Navigation |encyclopedia=World History Encyclopedia |publisher=World History Publishing |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1028/roman-shipbuilding--navigation/ |access-date=12 July 2023}}<!--
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{{Reflib|lib=Asea|Lazenby-1996|Miles-2011|Morrison-Coates-2016|Morrison-Coates-Rankov-2000|Morrison-Gardiner-1995|Murray-2011}}
{{sfn whitelist |CITEREFLazenby1996 |CITEREFMiles2011 |CITEREFMorrisonCoates2016 |CITEREFMorrisonCoatesRankov2000 |CITEREFCoates1995 |CITEREFCasson1995b |CITEREFHocker1995 |CITEREFRankov1995 |CITEREFMurray2011}}{{cite whitelink |CITEREFDotson1995 |CITEREFMorrison1995 |CITEREFPryor1995 |CITEREFWachsmann1995}}<!--
-->
* {{cite web |last=Murray |first=William M. |date=2019 |title=The Ship Classes of the Egadi Rams and Polybius' Account of the First Punic War |website=Society for Classical Studies |url=https://classicalstudies.org/annual-meeting/145/abstract/ship-classes-egadi-rams-and-polybius’-account-first-punic-war }}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |date=9 November 2023 |last1=Petit |first1=Paul |last2=Hornblower |first2=Simon |last3=Ferguson |first3=John |display-authors=3 |last4=Salmon |first4=Edward Togo |last5=Saller |first5=Richard P. |last6=MacMullen |first6=Ramsay |last7=Forsythe |first7=Gary Edward |last8=Badian |first8=E. |last9=Vermeule |first9=Emily D. Townsend |last10=de Grummond |first10=Nancy Thomson |title=ancient Rome |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |language=en |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/ancient-Rome |access-date=29 November 2023 |entry-url=https://www.britannica.com/place/ancient-Rome|ref={{harvid|Petit et al.|2023}} }}
* {{cite book |last=Pitassi |first=Michael |date=2011 |title=Roman Warships |publisher=Boydell Press |location=Woodbridge, Suffolk |isbn=9781843836100 |oclc=646110784 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Wie8Vn5-cMC&pg=PA180}}
* <!--Use: {{sfn|Pliny|Bostock|1855|loc=36.14}}
-->{{Cite book |language=en |title=The Natural History. ''Vol. 7, Book 36'' |author=Pliny the Elder |authorlink=Pliny the Elder |date=1855 |orig-date=77 CE |translator1-last=Bostock |translator1-first=John |translator2-last=Riley |translator2-first=H.T. |chapter=14. Obelisks |publisher=Taylor and Francis |location=London |chapter-url=http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0978.phi001.perseus-eng1:36.14 <!--AV-media audio-url=https://archive.org/details/natural_history_7_2202_librivox/naturalhistoryvolume7_30_pliny_128kb.mp3 (audio by Librivox)--> |oclc=1377782773 |ref={{harvid|Pliny|Bostock|1855}} }}<!--
-->{{Reflib|lib=Asea|Prag-2013}}{{sfn whitelist|CITEREFPrag2013}}<!--
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{{Reflib|lib=Asea|Saddington-2007}}{{sfn whitelist|CITEREFSaddington2007}}<!--
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* {{cite book |last=Scullard |first=H.H. |author-link= Howard Hayes Scullard|chapter=Carthage and Rome |pages=486–569
|editor1-first= F. W. |editor1-last=Walbank |editor2-first=A. E. |editor2-last=Astin |editor3-first=M. W. |editor3-last=Frederiksen |editor4-first=R. M. |editor4-last=Ogilvie|title=Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 7, Part 2, 2nd Edition| location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|name-list-style=amp |year=2006 |orig-year=1989| isbn= 978-0-521-23446-7}}
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*{{cite book |last=Starr |first=Chester G. |year=1941 |title=The Roman Imperial Navy 31 B.C. – A.D. 324 |location=Ithaca, NY |publisher=Cornell University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4awKxgEACAAJ}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Tipps |first=G.K. |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=432–465 |title=The Battle of Ecnomus |journal=Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte |date=1985 |jstor=4435938}}
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* {{Cite book |date=2011 |last=van Holk |first=André|editor1-last=Boetto |editor1-first=Giulia |editor2-last=Pomey |editor2-first=Patrice |editor3-last=Tchernia |editor3-first=André |chapter=2 - Recent Research on Roman Shipfinds from the Netherlands |title=Batellerie gallo-romaine:Pratiques régionales et influences maritimes méditerranéennes |trans-title=Gallo-Roman inland navigation:Regional practices and Mediterranean maritime influences |edition=New (online) |publisher=Publications du Centre Camille Jullian, Éditions Érrance |location=Aix-en-Provence |series= Bibliothèque d'archéologie méditerranéenne et africaine, 9 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4000/books.pccj.967 |isbn=9782957155781 |doi=10.4000/books.pccj.967}}
* {{cite book |language=de |last=Viereck |first=Hans D. L |date=1975 |title=Die römische Flotte: Classis Romana |trans-title=The Roman Fleet: Classis Romana |publisher=Koehler |location=Herford, Germany |isbn=378220106X |oclc=2318792 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YjfAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{cite book|last=Wallinga |first=Herman |title=The Boarding-bridge of the Romans: Its Construction and its Function in the Naval Tactics of the First Punic War |oclc=458845955 |publisher=J.B. Wolters |location= Groningen|year=1956}}<!--
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{{Reflib|lib=Asea|Welsh-1988}}{{sfn whitelist|CITEREFWelsh1988}}<!--
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* {{cite book |last=Wilkes |first=John J. |date=1 December 1995 |orig-date=1988 |title=The Illyrians (The Peoples of Europe) |publisher=Blackwell |location=Oxford |isbn=9780631198079 |oclc=36173200 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4Nv6SPRKqs8C }}
* {{cite journal |last=Zaninović |first=M. |title=Liburnia Militaris |journal=Opusc. Archeol. |volume=13 |pages=43–67 |year=1988 |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/5311}}
{{Refend}}

== Further reading ==
<!-- Grab stuff out of here (ideally in {{cite ...}} format) and move up to "Works cited" when you use it as a reference. -->

* {{cite web |last=Blaschke |first=Jayme |title=Tide and time: Re-dating Caesar's invasion of Britain |publisher=[[Texas State University]] |date=23 June 2008 |url-status=dead |url=http://www.txstate.edu/news/news_releases/news_archive/2008/06/Caesar062308.html |archive-date=1 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130801064609/http://www.txstate.edu/news/news_releases/news_archive/2008/06/Caesar062308.html}}
* {{cite book |last1=Chatterton |first1=Edward Keble |date=2010 |orig-date=1909:Sidgwick & Jackson |title=The history of sailing ships the story of their development from the earliest times until the 19th century |publisher=Salzwasser |location=Bremen |series=Historische Schiffahrt, 150 |page=107 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KF2JEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA107 |isbn=9783861953081 |oclc=845685916}}
* {{ Cite book |last=D'Amato|first= Raffaele |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-Z2ICwAAQBAJ |title=Republican Roman Warships 509–27 BC |others=Illustrated by Giuseppe Rava | publisher=Bloomsbury | date=2015 | isbn =9781472808295 | series= New Vanguard, vol. 225 }}
* {{cite journal |language=en |last=Dreyer |first=Boris |date=March 2011 |title=Principles and Progress in the Shipbuilding Part of the EU Interreg DTP Project 'Living Danube Limes.' |journal=Építés - Építészettudomány [Architectonics and Architecture] |volume=49 |number=1–2 |publisher=[[Akadémiai Kiadó|AK Journals]] |doi=10.1556/096.2021.00008 |pages=171–208 |s2cid=233899291 |via=[[WP:TWL|TWL]]/[[EBSCOhost]]|doi-access=free }}<!--choppy translation from Hungarian, but seems technically okay, and lots about lusoriae.-->
* {{cite book |language=de |last1=Günther |first1=Sven |last2=Ruffing |first2=Kai |last3=Stoll |first3=Oliver |title=Pragmata: Beiträge zur Wirtschaftsgeschichte der Antike im Gedenken an Harald Winkel |trans-title=Pragmata: Contributions to the Economic History of Antiquity in Memory of Harald Winkel |date=2007 |publisher=Harrassowitz |location=Wiesbaden |series=Philippika, 17 |isbn=9783447055369 |oclc=153885180 |page= |quote= |trans-quote= |quote-page=29 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4_yu9f_eZP4C&pg=PA29}}
* {{cite book |last=Ermatinger |first=James William |date= 11 August 2015|title=The World of Ancient Rome: A Daily Life Encyclopedia |publisher=Greenwood |location=Santa Barbara |page=725 |isbn=9781440829079 |oclc=1440829071 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9rI6CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA725}}
* Emil Luebeck: "Actuariae". In: ''[[Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft]]'' (RE). Volume I, 1, Stuttgart 1893, p.&nbsp;331.
* Meijer, Fik [https://books.google.com/books?id=e0_XAwAAQBAJ A History of Seafaring in the Classical World]
* Pitassi, Michael [https://books.google.com/books?id=GhvHDwAAQBAJ The Roman Navy: Ships, Men and Warfare 350 BC–AD 475]
* {{cite book|last=Starr|first=Chester |author-link=Chester Starr|title=A History of the Ancient World|location=New York, New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|orig-year=1965|year=1991|isbn=978-0-19-506628-9}}
* Steinby, Christa [https://books.google.com/books?id=7XJtBQAAQBAJ Rome versus Carthage]
* Torr, Cecil [https://books.google.com/books?id=pWhptO7Axj0C Ancient Ships]

== External links ==
* {{Commonscat-inline|Ancient Roman ships}}
* [https://www.vita-romae.com/roman-ships.html Roman ships and navigation in ancient Rome]

{{Ancient seafaring}}

[[Category:Ancient Roman ships| ]]
[[Category:Maritime history]]
[[Category:Ancient boats]]
[[Category:Ancient Rome]]
[[Category:Maritime archaeology]]