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: ''This article is about Nareg because he is THE SICKEST GUY!!! [[Symbiosis (disambiguation)]]'' |
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[[Image:Common clownfish curves dnsmpl.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Clownfish amid sea anemone tentacles]] |
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The term '''symbiosis''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]]: σύν ''syn'' "with"; and βίωσις ''biosis'' "[[living]]") commonly describes close and often long-term interactions between different biological [[species]]. The term was first used in 1879 by the [[Germany|German]] [[mycology|mycologist]] [[Heinrich Anton de Bary]], who defined it as "the living together of unlike organisms."<ref name="Wilkinson 2001">{{Harvnb|Wilkinson|2001}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Douglas|1994|p=1}}</ref> |
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The definition of symbiosis is in, and the term has been applied to a wide range of [[biological interaction]]s. The symbiotic relationship may be categorized as being [[mutualism|mutualistic]], [[parasitism|parasitic]], or [[commensalism|commensal]] in nature.<ref name="Dethlefsen et al.">{{cite journal|author=Dethlefsen L, McFall-Ngai M, Relman DA|year= 2007|title=An ecological and evolutionary perspective on human-microbe mutualism and disease|journal=Nature|volume=449|pages=811–808|pmid=17943117 | doi = 10.1038/nature06245}}</ref><ref name="Paszkowski">{{cite journal|author=Paszkowski U.|year=2006|title=Mutualism and parasitism: the yin and yang of plant symbioses|journal=Curr Opin Plant Biol|volume=9|pages=364–370|pmid=16713732 | doi = 10.1016/j.pbi.2006.05.008}}</ref> Others define it more narrowly, as only those relationships from which both organisms benefit, in which case it would be synonymous with mutualism.<ref name="Wilkinson 2001"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Isaac|1992|p=266}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Saffo|1993}}</ref> |
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Symbiotic relationships include those associations in which one organism lives on another ([[ectosymbiosis]], such as [[mistletoe]]), or where one partner lives inside the other ([[Endosymbiont|endosymbiosis]], such as [[lactobacilli]] and other bacteria in humans or [[zooxanthellae|zooxanthelles]] in [[coral]]s). Symbiotic relationships may be either [[Obligate parasite|obligate]], i.e., necessary for the survival of at least one of the organisms involved, or [[wikt:facultative|facultative]], where the relationship is beneficial but not essential for survival of the organisms.<ref name="Moran 2006">{{Harvnb|Moran|2006}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">{{Harvnb|Ahmadjian|Paracer|2000|p=12}}</ref> |
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== Physical interaction == |
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[[Image:An alder root nodule gall.JPG|left|thumb|Alder tree root nodule]] |
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[[Endosymbiosis]] is any symbiotic relationship in which one symbiont lives within the tissues of the other, either in the intracellular space or extracellularly.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Sapp|1994|p=142}}</ref> Examples are [[rhizobia]], nitrogen-fixing [[bacterium|bacteria]] that live in [[root nodules]] on [[legume]] roots; [[actinomycete]] nitrogen-fixing bacteria called ''[[Frankia]]'', which live in [[alder]] tree root nodules; single-celled [[algae]] inside reef-building [[corals]]; and bacterial endosymbionts that provide essential nutrients to about 10%–15% of insects. |
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[[Ectosymbiosis]], also referred to as ''exosymbiosis'', is any symbiotic relationship in which the symbiont lives on the body surface of the host, including the inner surface of the [[digestion|digestive]] tract or the ducts of [[exocrine]] glands.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Nardon|Charles|2002}}</ref> Examples of this include [[ectoparasites]] such as [[lice]], [[commensalism|commensal]] ectosymbionts such as the [[barnacles]] that attach themselves to the jaw of [[baleen whales]], and [[mutualist]] ectosymbionts such as [[cleaner fish]]. |
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== Mutualism == |
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{{main article|Mutualism}} |
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[[File:Calcinus laevimanus hermit crab with Calliactis sea anemone. 2 frames in one.jpg|[[Hermit crab]], ''Calcinus laevimanus'', with sea anemone.|thumb|300px]] |
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The term "mutualism" describes any relationship between individuals of different [[species]] where both individuals derive a benefit.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{Harvnb|Ahmadjian|Paracer|2000|p=6}}</ref> Generally, only lifelong interactions involving close physical and [[biochemical]] contact can properly be considered symbiotic. Mutualistic relationships may be either obligate for both species, obligate for one but facultative for the other, or facultative for both. Many [[biologist]]s restrict the definition of symbiosis to close mutualist relationships. |
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A large percentage of [[herbivores]] have mutualistic [[gut fauna]] that help them digest plant matter, which is more difficult to digest than animal prey.<ref name="Moran 2006"/> [[Coral]] reefs are the result of mutualisms between coral organisms and various types of algae that live inside them.<ref>{{Harvnb|Toller|Rowan|Knowlton|2001}}</ref> Most land plants and land ecosystems rely on mutualisms between the plants, which [[carbon fixation|fix]] carbon from the air, and [[mycorrhyzal]] fungi, which help in extracting minerals from the ground.<ref>{{Harvnb|Harrison|2005}}</ref> |
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An example of mutual symbiosis is the relationship between the [[ocellaris clownfish]] that dwell among the [[tentacle]]s of [[Heteractis magnifica|Ritteri sea anemone]]s. The territorial [[fish]] protects the anemone from anemone-[[eating]] fish, and in turn the [[stinger|stinging]] tentacles of the anemone protects the clownfish from its [[predator]]s. A special [[mucus]] on the clownfish protects it from the stinging tentacles.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lee|2003}}</ref> |
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Another example is the [[goby|goby fish]], which sometimes lives together with a [[shrimp]]. The shrimp digs and cleans up a burrow in the sand in which both the shrimp and the goby fish live. The shrimp is almost blind, leaving it vulnerable to predators when above ground. In case of danger the goby fish touches the shrimp with its tail to warn it. When that happens both the shrimp and goby fish quickly retract into the burrow.<ref>{{Harvnb|Facey|Helfman|Collette|1997}}</ref> |
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One of the most spectacular examples of obligate mutualism is between the [[siboglinid]] [[tube worms]] and symbiotic [[bacteria]] that live at [[hydrothermal vents]] and [[cold seep]]s. The worm has no digestive tract and is wholly reliant on its internal symbionts for nutrition. The bacteria oxidize either hydrogen sulfide or methane which the host supplies to them. These worms were discovered in the late 1980s at the hydrothermal vents near the Galapagos Islands and have since been found at [[deep-sea]] hydrothermal vents and cold seeps in all of the world's oceans.<ref>{{harvnb|Cordes|2005}}</ref>{{clear}} There are also many types of tropical and sub-tropical ants that have evolved very complex relationships with certain tree species.<ref>[[Ross Piper|Piper, Ross]] (2007), ''Extraordinary Animals: An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals'', [[Greenwood Press (publisher)|Greenwood Press]].</ref> |
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== Commensalism == |
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{{main article|Commensalism}} |
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Commensalism describes a relationship between two living organisms where one benefits and the other is not significantly harmed or helped. It is derived from the English word [[wikt:commensal|commensal]], meaning "sharing food" and used of human [[social interaction]]. The word derives from the medieval Latin word, formed from ''com-'' and ''mensa'', meaning "sharing a table".<ref name="ReferenceB"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Nair|2005}}</ref> |
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Commensal relationships may involve one organism using another for transportation ([[phoresy]]) or for housing ([[inquilinism]]), or it may also involve one organism using something another created, after its death ([[metabiosis]]). Examples of metabiosis are [[hermit crab]]s using [[gastropod]] shells to protect their bodies and spiders building their webs on [[plants]]. |
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== Parasitism == |
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{{main article|Parasitism}} |
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A [[parasitic]] relationship is one in which one member of the association benefits while the other is harmed.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ahmadjian|Paracer|2000|p=7}}</ref> Parasitic symbioses take many forms, from [[endoparasites]] that live within the host's body to [[ectoparasites]] that live on its surface. In addition, parasites may be necrotrophic, which is to say they kill their host, or biotrophic, meaning they rely on their host's surviving. Biotrophic parasitism is an extremely successful mode of life. Depending on the definition used, as many as half of all [[animal]]s have at least one parasitic phase in their life cycles, and it is also frequent in [[plant]]s and [[fungi]]. Moreover, almost all free-living animals are host to one or more parasite [[taxon|taxa]]. An example of a biotrophic relationship would be a [[tick]] feeding on the blood of its host. |
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==Symbiosis and evolution== |
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[[Image:Common jassid nymphs and ants02.jpg|thumb|180px|[[Leafhopper]]s protected by an army of [[meat ant]]s]] |
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While historically, symbiosis has received less attention than other interactions such as [[predation]] or [[Competition (biology)|competition]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Townsend|Begon|Harper|1996}}</ref> it is increasingly recognised as an important selective force behind evolution,<ref name="Moran 2006">{{Harvnb|Moran|2006}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Wernegreen|2004}}</ref> |
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with many species having a long history of interdependent [[co-evolution]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Ahmadjian|Paracer|2000|p=3-4}}</ref> In fact, the evolution of all [[eukaryotes]] (plants, animals, fungi, and [[protists]]) is believed under the [[endosymbiotic theory]] to have resulted from a symbiosis between various sorts of bacteria.<ref name="Moran 2006"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Brinkman|2002}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Golding|Gupta|1995}}</ref> |
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=== Symbiogenesis === |
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The biologist [[Lynn Margulis]], famous for her work on [[endosymbiosis]], contends that symbiosis is a major driving force behind [[evolution]]. She considers [[Charles Darwin|Darwin's]] notion of evolution, driven by competition, as incomplete and claims that evolution is strongly based on [[Co-operation (evolution)|co-operation]], [[interaction]], and [[mutual dependence]] among organisms. According to Margulis and [[Dorion Sagan]], "[[Life]] did not take over the [[Earth|globe]] by [[combat]], but by [[social network|networking]]."<ref>{{harvnb|Sagan|Margulis|1986}}</ref> |
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=== Co-evolution === |
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Symbiosis played a major role in the [[co-evolution]] of [[flower]]ing plants and the animals that [[pollinate]] them. Many plants that are pollinated by [[insect]]s, [[bat]]s, or [[bird]]s have highly specialized flowers modified to promote pollination by a specific pollinator that is also correspondingly adapted. The first flowering plants in the fossil record had relatively simple flowers. Adaptive [[speciation]] quickly gave rise to many diverse groups of plants, and, at the same time, corresponding speciation occurred in certain insect groups. Some groups of plants developed [[nectar]] and large sticky [[pollen]], while insects evolved more specialized morphologies to access and collect these rich food sources. In some taxa of plants and insects the relationship has become dependent,<ref>{{Harvnb|Harrison|2002}}</ref> where the plant species can only be pollinated by one species of insect.<ref>{{Harvnb|Danforth|Ascher|1997}}</ref> |
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== Notes == |
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{{reflist|3}} |
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*[[aposymbiotic]] |
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*[[aquaponics]] |
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*[[decompiculture]] |
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*[[list of symbiotic organisms]] |
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*[[list of symbiotic relationships]] |
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*[[multigenomic organism]] |
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==References== |
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Revision as of 21:55, 13 November 2009
==See |last2=Paracer |first2=Surindar |title=Symbiosis: an introduction to biological associations |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] |year=2000 |pages= |isbn=0-195-11806-5 |oclc= |doi= }}
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