View source for Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

{{Short description|Triunity of deities in Neopaganism}}
{{About|the triple goddess of certain forms of Neopaganism||Triple deity}}
{{Redirect|Maiden Mother Crone|the television episode|Maiden Mother Crone (Agatha All Along){{!}}Maiden Mother Crone (''Agatha All Along'')}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=November 2012}}
{{Infobox deity
| type     = Neopagan
| name     = Triple Goddess
| god_of   = Goddess of the Moon, the Earth, and childbirth
| image    = 
| caption  = 
| abode    =
| symbol   = 
* Crescent, full, and dark moon (original)
* Crescent, half, and full moon (late Antiquity)
* Waxing, full, and waning moons (modern)
| consort  =
}}

The '''Triple Goddess''' is a [[deity]] or deity [[archetype]] revered in many [[Modern Paganism|Neopagan]] religious and spiritual traditions. In common Neopagan usage, the Triple Goddess is viewed as a [[triunity]] of three distinct aspects or figures united in one being. These three figures are often described as the [[Virginity|Maiden]], the [[Mother goddess|Mother]], and the [[Crone]], each of which symbolizes both a separate stage in the female life cycle and a [[Lunar phase|phase]] of the [[Moon]], and often rules one of the realms of heavens, earth, and underworld. In various forms of Wicca, her masculine consort is the [[Horned God]].

The Triple Goddess was the subject of much of the writing of early and middle 20th-century poet, novelist and mythographer [[Robert Graves]], in his books ''[[The White Goddess]]'' and ''[[The Greek Myths]]'' as well as in his poetry and novels. Modern neopagan conceptions of the Triple Goddess have been heavily influenced by Graves, who regarded her as the continuing muse of all true poetry, and who speculatively imagined her ancient worship, drawing on the scholarship, fiction and mythology of his time, in particular the work of [[Jane Ellen Harrison]] and other [[Cambridge Ritualists]]. Hungarian scholar of Greek mythology [[Karl Kerenyi]] likewise perceived an underlying triple moon [[goddess]] in [[Greek mythology]]. Archaeologist [[Marija Gimbutas]] also argued for the ancient worship of a universal Triple Goddess in European cultures but, as with Graves, her generalization of these theories to multiple unrelated cultures, and the unsourced homogenization of diverse cultures into one unified cultural and religious figure, has attracted much controversy. Many neopagan belief systems follow Graves' and Gimbutas' proposed figure of a universal, cross-cultural Triple Goddess, and these ideas continue to be an influence on [[feminism]], [[literature]], [[Jungian psychology]] and [[literary criticism]].

==Origins==
Various triune or triple goddesses, or deities who appeared in groupings of three, were known to ancient religion. Well-known examples include the [[Tridevi]] ([[Saraswati]], [[Lakshmi]], and [[Parvati]]), [[Triglav (mythology)|Triglav]] (Slavs), the [[Charites]] (Graces), the [[Horae]] (Seasons, of which there were three in the ancient Hellenistic reckoning), and the [[Moirai]] (Fates). Some deities generally depicted as singular also included triplicate aspects. In [[Stymphalus (Arcadia)|Stymphalos]], [[Hera]] was worshiped as a Girl, a Grown-up, and a Widow.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0160:book=8:chapter=22|title=Pausanias, Description of Greece, Arcadia, chapter 22|website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref>

===Hecate===
[[File:AN00866037 001 l.jpg|thumb|right|Drawing of a Hekataion, depicting Hecate as a triple goddess surrounding a central column.]]

According to Robert Graves, [[Hecate]] was the "original" and most predominant ancient triple moon goddess. Hecate was represented in triple form from the early days of her worship - although contrary to popular belief, all three forms were usually shown as being the same age. Diana (Artemis) also came to be viewed as a trinity of three goddesses in one, which were viewed as distinct aspects of a single divine being: "Diana as huntress, Diana as the moon, Diana of the underworld."<ref name=diana_religion>{{harvnb|Green|2007|p={{page needed|date=January 2023}}}}</ref> Additional examples of the goddess Hecate viewed as a triple goddess associated with witchcraft include Lucan's tale of a group of witches, written in the 1st century BCE. In Lucan's work (LUC. B.C. 6:700-01), the witches speak of "[[Persephone]], who is the third and lowest aspect of our goddess Hecate".<ref>Lucan: The Civil War, Harvard University Press, 2006</ref> Another example is found in Ovid's ''Metamorphosis'' (Met. 7:94–95), in which Jason swears an oath to the witch Medea, saying he would "be true by the sacred rites of the three-fold goddess."<ref>Penguin Classics, Ovid Metamorphoses, 2004</ref>

The [[Neoplatonism|neoplatonist]] philosopher [[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]] was the first to record an explicit belief that the three aspects of Hecate (an important goddess in the Neoplatonic tradition of [[Late Antiquity]]) represented the phases of the moon: new, waxing, and full. In his 3rd century AD work ''On Images'', Porphyry wrote: "the moon is Hekate, the symbol of her varying phases and of her power dependent on the phases. Wherefore her power appears in three forms, having as symbol of the new moon the figure in the white robe and golden sandals, and torches lighted: the basket, which she bears when she has mounted high, is the symbol of the cultivation of the crops, which she makes to grow up according to the increase of her light: and again the symbol of the full moon is the goddess of the brazen sandals."<ref name=porphyry>Porphyry, ''On Images''. 3rd c. AD</ref> Porphyry also associated Hecate with [[Dionysus]], who he said they set beside her partially "on account of their growth of horns".<ref name=porphyry/>

===The Graces, Seasons, and Fates===
The specific character of the modern neopagan Maiden, Mother, and Crone archetype is not found in any ancient sources related directly to Hecate, or to most of the triple goddesses or trinities described above.<ref name=triumph>{{harvnb|Hutton|2001|p={{page needed|date=January 2023}}}}.</ref> Both Diana and Hecate were almost invariably described as maiden goddesses, with an appearance like that of a young woman.<ref name=diana_religion/> However, according to the 3rd century BC grammarian Epigenes, the three [[Moirai]], or Fates, were regarded by the [[Orphism (religion)|Orphic]] tradition as representing the three divisions of the Moon, "the thirtieth and the fifteenth and the first" (i.e. the crescent moon, full moon, and dark moon, as delinted by the divisions of the calendar month).<ref>Clement of Alexandria, Stromata: Abel, frg. 253.</ref> The Moirai themselves were depicted in Renaissance and modern art as a young girl ([[Clotho]]), an older woman ([[Lachesis]]), and an elderly woman ([[Atropos]]), but no surviving art from antiquity depicts them as such.  The connection between the Fates and the variously named Triple Moon Goddess, then ultimately led to the conflation of these concepts.<ref name=jones2005>{{harvnb|Jones|2005}}.</ref> [[Maurus Servius Honoratus|Servius]] made the explicit connection between these phases and the roles of the Moirai: "some call the same goddess Lucina, Diana, and Hecate, because they assign to one goddess the three powers of birth, growth, and death. Some that say that Lucina is the goddess of birth, Diana of growth, and Hecate of death. On account of this three-fold power, they have imagined her as three-fold and three-form, and for that reason they built temples at the meeting of three roads."<ref>Servius, Commentary on the Aeneid, 4.511</ref> Servius' text included a drawing of a crescent moon (representing the new moon), a half moon (representing the waxing moon), and the full moon.

According to Jane Ellen Harrison:

<blockquote>The three Horae are the three phases of Selene, the Moon waxing, full, and waning. ... [T]he Moon is the true mother of the triple Horae, who are themselves Moirai, and the Moirai, as Orpheus tells us, are but the three ''moirai'' or divisions (''μέρη'') of the Moon herself, the three divisions of the old year. And these three Moirai or Horae are also [[Charites]]."{{sfn|Harrison|1908|p=288}}</blockquote>

The syncretism of the predominant triple moon goddess (a united figure of Diana/Hecate/Selene), combined with the Orphic belief that the Seasons and the Fates were divisions of this same divinity, along with the latter representing the three stages of life, ultimately gave rise to the modern conception of a Triple Goddess whose symbol is the moon and whose triplicity can be conceived of both in terms of the moon's phases as the "Maiden, Mother, and Crone". However, it was not until the early 20th century that this fairly obscure ancient connection was developed and popularized.<ref name=jones2005/>

==Modern development==
===Jane Ellen Harrison===
The belief in a singular Triple Moon Goddess was likely brought to modern scholarship, if not originated by,{{refn|group=note|{{harvnb|Meskell|1999|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AovRMzoGItgC&pg=PA87 87]}}: "It seems clear that the initial recording of Çatalhöyük [1961–1965] was largely influenced by decidedly Greek notions of ritual and magic, especially that of the Triple Goddess — maiden, mother, and crone. These ideas were common to many at that time, but probably originated with [[Jane Ellen Harrison]], Classical archaeologist and member of the famous Cambridge Ritualists (Harrison 1903)."}}{{refn|group=note|{{harvnb|Hutton|2001|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gK43x-BFDuEC&pg=PA36 36–37]}}: "In 1903... an influential Cambridge classicist, Jane Ellen Harrison, declared her belief in [a Great Earth Mother] but with a threefold division of aspect. ... [S]he pointed out that the pagan ancient world had sometimes believed in partnerships of three divine women, such as the Fates or the Graces. She argued that the original single one, representing the earth, had likewise been honoured in three roles. The most important of these were the Maiden, ruling the living, and Mother, ruling the underworld; she did not name the third. ... [S]he declared that all male deities had originally been subordinate to the goddess as her lovers and her sons."}} the work of [[Jane Ellen Harrison]].{{sfnm|Harrison|1908|Harrison|1912|Harrison|1913}}{{refn|group=note|{{harvnb|Harrison|1908|pp=286ff}}: Excerpts: "... Greek religion has... a number of ''triple'' forms, Women-Trinities.... the trinity-form was confined to the women goddesses. ... of a male trinity we find no trace. ... The ancient threefold goddesses...."}} Harrison asserts the existence of female trinities, and uses Epigenes and other ancient sources to elaborate on the [[Horae]], Fates, and Graces as chronological symbols representing the phases of the Moon and the threefold division of the Hellenistic lunar month.{{sfn|Harrison|1912|pp=189–192}}<ref name=jones2005/>

However, Harrison's interpretations and contribution to the development and study of the Triple Goddess were somewhat overshadowed by the more controversial and poorly-supported ideas in her works. Most notably, Harrison used historical sources for the existence of an ancient Triple Moon Goddess to support her belief in an ancient matriarchal civilization, which has not stood up to academic scrutiny. [[Ronald Hutton]] writes:

<blockquote>[Harrison's] work, both celebrated and controversial, posited the previous existence of a peaceful and intensely creative woman-centred civilization, in which humans, living in harmony with nature and their own emotions, worshipped a single female deity. The deity was regarded as representing the earth, and as having three aspects, of which the first two were Maiden and Mother; she did not name the third. ...  Following her work, the idea of a matristic early Europe which had venerated such a deity was developed in books by amateur scholars such as Robert Briffault's ''The Mothers'' (1927) and Robert Graves's ''The White Goddess'' (1948).<ref name="HuttonNGG3" /></blockquote>

John Michael Greer writes:

<blockquote>Harrison proclaimed that Europe itself had been the location of an idyllic, goddess-worshipping, matriarchal civilization just before the beginning of recorded history, and spoke bitterly of the disastrous consequences of the [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European]] invasion that destroyed it. In the hands of later writers such as Robert Graves, Jacquetta Hawkes, and Marija Gimbutas, this 'lost civilization of the goddess' came to play the same sort of role in many modern Pagan communities as Atlantis and Lemuria did in [[Theosophy (Blavatskian)|Theosophy]].<ref name="Greer"/></blockquote>

The "[[myth and ritual]]" school or the [[Cambridge Ritualists]], of which Harrison was a key figure, while controversial in its day, is now considered passé in intellectual and academic terms.  According to Robert Ackerman, "[T]he reason the Ritualists have fallen into disfavor... is not that their assertions have been controverted by new information... Ritualism has been swept away not by an access of new facts but of new theories."<ref name="Ackerman">{{harvnb|Ackerman|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9z7exWBhISoC&pg=PA188 188]}}.</ref>

Ronald Hutton wrote on the decline the "Great Goddess" theory specifically: "The effect upon professional prehistorians was to make most return, quietly and without controversy, to that careful agnosticism as to the nature of ancient religion which most had preserved until the 1940s. There had been no absolute disproof of the veneration of a Great Goddess, only a demonstration that the evidence concerned admitted of alternative explanations."{{sfn|Hutton|1997|p=97}} Hutton did not dispute that in ancient pagan worship "partnerships of three divine women" occurred; rather he proposed that Jane Harrison looked to such partnerships to help explain how ancient goddesses could be both virgin and mother (the third person of the triad being as yet unnamed). She was, according to Hutton, "extending" the ideas of archaeologist [[Sir Arthur Evans]] who in excavating [[Knossos]] in [[Crete]] had come to the view that prehistoric Cretans had worshiped a single mighty goddess at once virgin and mother. In Hutton's view Evans' opinion owed an "unmistakable debt" to the Christian belief in the [[Virgin Mary]].<ref>{{harvnb|Hutton|2001|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gK43x-BFDuEC&pg=PA36 36–37]}}.</ref>

===Jungian archetype theory===
The Triple Goddess as an [[Jungian archetype|archetype]] is discussed in the works of both [[Carl Jung]] and [[Karl Kerényi]],{{sfn|Jung|Kerényi|1949}} and the later works of their follower [[Erich Neumann (psychologist)|Erich Neumann]].{{sfn|Neumann|1955}} Jung considered the general arrangement of deities in triads as a pattern which arises at the most primitive level of human mental development and culture.{{sfn|Jung|1966}}

In 1949 Jung and Kerényi theorized that groups of three goddesses found in Greece become quaternities only by association with a male god. They give the example of Diana only becoming three (Daughter, Wife, Mother) through her relationship to Zeus, the male deity. They go on to state that different cultures and groups associate different numbers and cosmological bodies with gender.{{sfn|Jung|Kerényi|1949|p=25}}

{{quote|The threefold division [of the year] is inextricably bound up with the primitive form of the goddess Demeter, who was also Hecate, and Hecate could claim to be mistress of the three realms. In addition, her relations to the moon, the corn, and the realm of the dead are three fundamental traits in her nature. The goddess's sacred number is the special number of the underworld: '3' dominates the chthonic cults of antiquity."{{sfn|Jung|Kerényi|1949|p=167}}
}}

Kerenyi wrote in 1952 that several Greek goddesses were triple moon goddesses of the Maiden Mother Crone type, including [[Hera]] and others. For example, Kerényi writes:

<blockquote>With Hera the correspondences of the mythological and cosmic transformation extended to all three phases in which the Greeks saw the moon: she corresponded to the waxing moon as maiden, to the full moon as fulfilled wife, to the waning moon as abandoned withdrawing women".{{sfn|Kerényi|1978|p=58}}</blockquote>

He goes on to say that trios of sister goddess in Greek myth refer to the lunar cycle; in the book in question he treats Athene also as a triple moon goddess, noting the statement by Aristotle that Athene was the Moon but not "only" the Moon.{{sfn|Kerényi|1978|p=58}}

In discussing examples of his Great Mother archetype, Neumann mentions the Fates as "the threefold form of the Great Mother",{{sfn|Neumann|1955|p=226}} details that "the reason for their appearance in threes or nines, or more seldom in twelves, is to be sought in the threefold articulation underlying all created things; but here it refers most particularly to the three temporal stages of all growth (beginning-middle-end, birth-life-death, past-present-future)."{{sfn|Neumann|1955|p=230}} Andrew Von Hendy writes that Neumann's theories are based on [[circular reasoning]], whereby a [[Eurocentric]] view of world mythology is used as evidence for a universal model of individual psychological development which mirrors a [[sociocultural evolution]]ary model derived from European mythology.{{sfn|Von Hendy|2002|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rYNeAoovzw0C&pg=RA1-PA186 186–187]}}

===Robert Graves===
As a poet and mythographer, [[Robert Graves]] claimed a historical basis for the Triple Goddess. Although Graves's work is widely discounted by academics as pseudohistory  (see [[The White Goddess#Criticism|The White Goddess § Criticism]] and [[The Greek Myths#Reception|The Greek Myths § Reception]]), it continues to have a lasting influence on many areas of [[Neopaganism]].<ref name="Greer" />

Ronald Hutton argues that the concept of the triple moon goddess as Maiden, Mother, and Crone, each facet corresponding to a phase of the moon, is a modern creation of Graves',<ref name="Ackerman"/>{{sfn|Hutton|1997}} who in turn drew on the work of 19th and 20th century scholars such as especially [[Jane Ellen Harrison|Jane Harrison]]; and also [[Margaret Murray]], [[James Frazer]], the other members of the "[[myth and ritual]]" school of Cambridge Ritualists, and the occultist and writer [[Aleister Crowley]].<ref>{{harvnb|Hutton|2001|p=41}}.</ref>

While Graves was the originator of the idea of the Triple Goddess as embodying Maiden/Mother/Crone, this was not the only trinity he proposed. In his 1944 historical novel ''The Golden Fleece'', Graves wrote "Maiden, Nymph and Mother are the eternal royal Trinity...and the Goddess, who is worshipped...in each of these aspects, as New Moon, Full Moon, and Old Moon, is the sovereign deity."{{sfn|Graves|1945|p={{page needed|date=January 2023}}}}

In his best-known work, ''[[The White Goddess|The White Goddess: a Historical Grammar of Poetic Myth]]'' (1948), Graves described the trinity of the Triple Goddess in several different ways:

*Representing stages of a woman's life:
** Maiden/Nymph/Hag
** Maiden/Mother/Crone
*Representing the women associated with stages of a man's life:
** Mother/Bride/Layer-out

Graves explained, "As Goddess of the Underworld she was concerned with Birth, Procreation and Death. As Goddess of the Earth she was concerned with the three season of Spring, Summer and Winter: she animated trees and plants and ruled all living creatures. As Goddess of the Sky she was the Moon, in her three phases of New Moon, Full Moon, and Waning Moon...As the New Moon or Spring she was a girl; as the Full Moon or Summer she was woman; as the Old Moon or Winter she was hag."{{sfn|Graves|1948|p={{page needed|date=January 2023}}}}

In the 1949 novel ''[[Seven Days in New Crete]]'', Graves extrapolated this theory into an imagined future society where the worship of the Triple Goddess (under the three aspects of the maiden archer [[Nimuë]], the goddess of motherhood and sexuality Mari, and the hag-goddess of wisdom Ana) is the main form of religion.

Graves wrote extensively on the subject of the Triple Goddess who he saw as the Muse of all true poetry in both ancient and modern literature.{{sfn|Graves|1948|loc=ch. 1}} He thought that her ancient worship underlay much of classical Greek myth although reflected there in a more or less distorted or incomplete form. As an example of an unusually complete survival of the "ancient triad" he cites from the classical source [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] the worship of [[Hera]] in three persons.{{sfn|Graves|1961|p=368}} [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]]  recorded the ancient worship of ''Hera Pais'' (Girl [[Hera]]), ''Hera Teleia'' (Adult Hera), and ''Hera Khera'' (Widow Hera, though ''Khera'' can also mean [[legal separation|separated]] or [[divorced]]) at a single sanctuary reputedly built by Temenus, son of [[Pelasgus#Pelasgus of Arcadia|Pelasgus]], in [[Stymphalus (Arcadia)|Stymphalos]].<ref>[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], ''Guide to Greece'' 8.22.2</ref> Other examples he gives include the goddess triad [[Moirai|Moira]], [[Ilythia]] and Callone ("Death, Birth and Beauty") from [[Plato]]'s [[Symposium]];{{sfn|Graves|1961|p=11}} the goddess [[Hecate]]; the story of the rape of Kore (the triad here Graves said to be [[Persephone|Kore]], [[Persephone]] and [[Hecate]] with [[Demeter]] the general name of the goddess); alongside a large number of other configurations.{{sfn|Graves|2017}} A figure he used from outside of Greek myth was of the [[Akan people|Akan]] Triple Moon Goddess Ngame, who Graves said was still worshipped in 1960.{{sfn|Graves|1961|loc=Ch. 27, Postscript 1960}}

Graves regarded "true poetry" as inspired by the Triple Goddess, as an example of her continuing influence in English poetry he instances the "Garland of Laurell" by the English poet, [[John Skelton (poet)|John Skelton]] (c.1460–1529) — ''Diana in the leavës green, Luna that so bright doth sheen, Persephone in Hell.'' — as evoking his Triple Goddess in her three realms of earth, sky and underworld.{{sfn|Graves|1948|p=377}} Skelton was here following the Latin poet [[Ovid]].<ref>University of Virginia's "Ovid Illustrated" site, http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/latin/ovid/ovidillust.html, the lines from Skelton being explicitly sourced from Ovid in a note at http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/latin/ovid/trans/MetindexBCD.htm, retrieved 18 April 2011.</ref> James Frazer's seminal [[Golden Bough]] centres around the cult of the Roman goddess [[Diana (mythology)|Diana]] who had three aspects, associated with the Moon, the forest, and the underworld.<ref name=diana_religion/>

Graves stated that his Triple Goddess is the [[Mother goddess|Great Goddess]] "in her poetic or incantatory character", and that the goddess in her ancient form took the gods of the waxing and waning year successively as her lovers.{{sfn|Harvey|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4ZyRp3h-pZEC&pg=PA129 129]}} Graves believed that the Triple Goddess was an aboriginal deity also of [[Great Britain|Britain]], and that traces of her worship survived in early modern British witchcraft and in various modern British cultural attitudes such as what Graves believed to be a preference for a female sovereign.{{sfn|Graves|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4ZyRp3h-pZEC&pg=PA148 148]}}

In the anthology ''[[The Greek Myths]]'' (1955), Graves systematically applied his convictions enshrined in ''The White Goddess'' to Greek mythology, exposing a large number of readers to his various theories concerning goddess worship in ancient Greece.{{sfn|Von Hendy|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rYNeAoovzw0C&pg=RA1-PA354 354]}}  Graves posited that Greece had been settled by a matriarchal goddess-worshipping people before being invaded by successive waves of patriarchal [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] speakers from the north.  Much of Greek myth in his view recorded the consequent religious political and social accommodations until the final triumph of patriarchy.

Graves did not invent this picture but drew from nineteenth and early twentieth century scholarship. According to Ronald Hutton, Graves used Jane Ellen Harrison's idea of goddess-worshipping matriarchal early Europe<ref name="Greer">{{harvnb|Greer|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=xAmMNnJlfnoC&pg=PA280 280]}}.</ref><ref name="HuttonNGG3">{{harvnb|Hutton|1997|p=93}}.</ref> and the imagery of three aspects, and related these to the Triple Goddess.{{sfn|Seymour|2003|p=307}} This theory has not necessarily been disproved, but modern scholarship has favored other explanations for the evidence used by Graves and Harrison to support their ideas, which are not accepted as a consensus view today.{{sfn|Hutton|1997|p=97}} The twentieth century archaeologist [[Marija Gimbutas]] (see below) also argued for a triple goddess-worshipping European neolithic modified and eventually overwhelmed by waves of partiarchal invaders although she saw this neolithic civilization as egalitarian and "matristic" rather than "matriarchal" in the sense of gynocratic.{{sfn|Gimbutas|1991|p={{page needed|date=January 2023}}}}

===Marija Gimbutas===
Scholar [[Marija Gimbutas]]'s theories relating to goddess-centered culture among pre-[[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European]] "[[Old Europe (archaeology)|Old Europe]]" (6500–3500 BCE){{sfnm|Gimbutas|1974|Gimbutas|1999}} have been widely adopted by New Age and [[Ecofeminism|ecofeminist]] groups.<ref name="Gilchrist"/>  She had been referred to as the "Grandmother of the [[Goddess Movement]]" in the 1990s.{{sfn|Talalay|1999}}

Gimbutas postulated that in "Old Europe", the [[Aegean civilization|Aegean]] and the Near East, a single great Triple Goddess was worshipped, predating what she deemed as a [[patriarchal]] religion imported by the [[Kurgan culture]], nomadic speakers of [[Indo-European languages]]. Gimbutas interpreted iconography from Neolithic and earlier periods of European history evidence of worship of a triple goddess represented by:
# "stiff nudes", birds of prey or poisonous snakes interpreted as "death"
# mother-figures interpreted as symbols of "birth and fertility"
# moths, butterflies or bees, or alternatively a frog, hedgehog or bull's head symbolizing the uterus or fetus, representing "regeneration"{{sfn|Gimbutas|1991|p=223}}

The first and third aspects of the goddess, according to Gimbutas, were frequently conflated to make a goddess of death-and-regeneration represented in folklore by such figures as [[Baba Yaga]]. Gimbutas regarded the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]] as a survival into classical antiquity of this ancient goddess worship,{{sfn|Gimbutas|1991|pp=243, and whole chapter "Religion of the Goddess"}} a suggestion which [[Georg Luck]] echoes.<ref>[[Georg Luck|Luck, Georg]] (1985). ''Arcana Mundi: Magic and the Occult in the Greek and Roman Worlds: A Collection of Ancient Texts''. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. {{ISBN|0-8018-2548-2}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8018-2548-4}}. p.5 suggests that this goddess persisted into Classical times as [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]] (the Greek Earth Mother), and the Roman [[Magna Mater]], among others.</ref>

Academic skepticism regarding her goddess-centered Old Europe thesis is widespread.<ref name="rich">Richard D. Lyons,  ''Dr. Marija Gimbutas Dies at 73; Archaeologist With Feminist View''
 New York Times [https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0DE0DB103AF937A35751C0A962958260], (1994)</ref> Gimbutas' evidence has been criticized on the grounds of dating, archaeological context, and [[Typology (archaeology)|typologies]],<ref name="Gilchrist">{{harvnb|Gilchrist|1999|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=SGW7PWampI4C&pg=PA25 25]}}.</ref> with most archaeologists considering her goddess hypothesis implausible.<ref>Whitehouse, Ruth (2006). "Gender Archaeology in Europe", p.756, in Nelson, Sarah Milledge (ed.) (2006). [https://books.google.com/books?id=EtIQUpgo2cEC&pg=PA756 ''Handbook of Gender in Archaeology''.] Rowman Altamira. {{ISBN|0-7591-0678-9}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7591-0678-9}}.</ref><ref>Dever, William G. (2005) [https://books.google.com/books?id=ekCJqIOS8NYC&pg=PA307 ''Did God Have A Wife?: Archaeology And Folk Religion In Ancient Israel''.] Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p.307. {{ISBN|0-8028-2852-3}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8028-2852-1}}.</ref> Lauren Talalay, reviewing Gimbutas's last book, ''The Living Goddesses'', says that it reads "more like a testament of faith than a well-conceived thesis", stating that "Just because a triangle schematically mimics the female pubic region, or a hedgehog resembles a uterus (!), or dogs are allied with death in Classical mythology, it is hardly justifiable to associate all these images with 'the formidable goddess of regeneration'."{{sfn|Talalay|1999}} Lynn Meskell considers such an approach "irresponsible".{{sfn|Meskell|1995|p=74}} However, linguist [[M. L. West]] has called Gimbutas's fundamental thesis of a goddess-based "Old European" religion being overtaken by a patriarchal Indo-European one "essentially sound".<ref>[[M. L. West|West, Martin Litchfield]] (2007). [https://books.google.com/books?id=LMtaQ508cs4C&pg=PA140 ''Indo-European Poetry and Myth''.] Oxford University Press. p.140. {{ISBN|0-19-928075-4}}, {{ISBN|978-0-19-928075-9}}.</ref>

Academic rejection of her theories has been echoed by some feminist authors, including [[Cynthia Eller]].<ref>Eller, Cynthia P. (2001). [https://books.google.com/books?id=E0mvTyM6GVUC ''The Myth of Matriarchal Prehistory: Why an Invented Past Won't Give Women a Future''.] Beacon Press. {{ISBN|0-8070-6793-8}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8070-6793-2}}.</ref> Others argue that her account challenges male-centred histories and creates a powerful origin-myth of female empowerment.<ref name = "rich"/> [[John Chapman (author)|John Chapman]] suggests that Gimbutas' Goddess theories were a poetic projection of her personal life, based on her idealized childhood and adolescence.<ref>Chapman, John (1998). "A Biographical Sketch of Marija Gimbutas" in Margarita Díaz-Andreu García, Marie Louise Stig Sørensen (eds.) (1998). ''Excavating Women: A History of Women in European Archaeology''. Routledge. pp.299–301. {{ISBN|0-415-15760-9}}, {{ISBN|978-0-415-15760-5}}.</ref>

==Contemporary beliefs and practices==
[[File:Triple Goddess Symbol.svg|thumb|right|The "Triple Goddess" symbol of the waxing, full and waning moon, representing the aspects of Maiden, Mother, and Crone<ref>Gilligan, Stephen G., and Simon, Dvorah (2004). [https://books.google.com/books?id=CkLBOvt10jwC&dq=%22triple+goddess%22+crescent+moon+symbol&pg=PA148 ''Walking in Two Worlds: The Relational Self in Theory, Practice, and Community'']. Zeig Tucker & Theisen Publishers. p. 148. {{ISBN|1-932462-11-2}}, {{ISBN|978-1-932462-11-1}}.</ref>]]

While most Neopagans are not [[Wicca]]n, and within Neopaganism the practices and theology vary widely,{{sfn|Adler|2006}} many Wiccans and other neopagans worship the "Triple Goddess" of maiden, mother, and crone. In their view, sexuality, pregnancy, breastfeeding—and other female reproductive processes—are ways that women may embody the Goddess, making the physical body sacred.<ref>Pike, Sarah M. (2007). "Gender in New Religions" in Bromley, David G. (ed.)(2007). [https://books.google.com/books?id=lbhbbu-drgYC&pg=PA214 ''Teaching New Religious Movements'']. Oxford University Press US. p. 214. {{ISBN|0-19-517729-0}}, {{ISBN|978-0-19-517729-9}}.</ref>

* The Maiden represents enchantment, inception, expansion, the promise of new beginnings, birth, youth and youthful enthusiasm, represented by the [[waxing moon]];
* The Mother represents ripeness, fertility, sexuality, fulfilment, stability, power and life represented by the [[full moon]];
* The Crone represents wisdom, repose, death, and endings represented by the [[waning moon]].

Helen Berger writes that "according to believers, this echoing of women's life stages allowed women to identify with deity in a way that had not been possible since the advent of [[patriarchal]] religions."{{sfn|Berger|2006 |p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Nng-dAooleAC&pg=PA62 62]}} The [[Church of All Worlds]] is one example of a neopagan organization which identifies the Triple Goddess as symbolizing a "fertility cycle".<ref>Zell, Otter and Morning Glory. [http://original.caw.org/articles/who_on_earth.html "Who on Earth is the Goddess?"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101117031948/http://original.caw.org/articles/who_on_earth.html |date=2010-11-17 }} (accessed 2009-10-03).</ref> This model is also supposed to encompass a personification of all the characteristics and potential of every woman who has ever existed.<ref name="Reid-Bowen">Reid-Bowen, Paul. [https://books.google.com/books?id=0MOmj9WpwI0C&pg=PA67 ''Goddess as Nature: Towards a Philosophical Thealogy'']. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 67. {{ISBN|0-7546-5627-6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7546-5627-2}}.</ref> Other beliefs held by worshippers, such as Wiccan author [[D. J. Conway]], include that reconnection with the Great Goddess is vital to the health of humankind "on all levels". Conway includes the Greek goddesses Demeter, Kore-Persephone, and Hecate, in her discussion of the Maiden-Mother-Crone archetype.{{sfn|Conway|1995|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AGCIAH7JJhEC&pg=PA54 54]}} Conway specifically believes the Triple Goddess stands for unity, cooperation, and participation with all creation, while in contrast masculine gods can represent dissociation, separation and dominion of nature.{{sfn|Conway|1995|p={{pn|date=January 2023}}}}

The [[Dianic tradition]] adopted Graves's Triple Goddess, along with other elements from Wicca, and is named after the Roman goddess [[Diana (mythology)|Diana]], the goddess of the witches in [[Charles Godfrey Leland]]'s 1899 book ''[[Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches|Aradia]]''.{{sfn|Berger|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Nng-dAooleAC&pg=PA61 61]}}<ref name="BarrettDianic">{{harvnb|Barrett|2004}}.</ref> [[Zsuzsanna Budapest]], widely considered the founder of [[Dianic Wicca]],{{sfn|Netburn |2021}}{{sfn|Barrett|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=et09UA-9FZQC&pg=PT18 xviii]}} considers her Goddess "the original Holy Trinity; Virgin, Mother, and Crone."<ref>{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090830025744/http://wicca.dianic-wicca.com/ http://wicca.dianic-wicca.com/]}} (accessed 2009-10-03)."</ref>{{better source needed|date=January 2023}} Dianic Wiccans such as Ruth Barrett, follower of Budapest and co-founder of the ''Temple of Diana'', use the Triple Goddess in ritual work and correspond the "special directions" of "above", "center", and "below" to Maiden, Mother, and Crone respectively.{{sfn|Barrett|2007|p=123}} Barrett says "Dianics honour ''She who has been called'' by Her daughters throughout time, in many places, and by many names."<ref name="BarrettDianic" />

Some neopagans believe that the Triple Goddess is an [[Jungian archetypes|archetypal]] figure which appears in a number of different cultures throughout human history, and that many individual goddesses can be interpreted as Triple Goddesses.<ref name="Reid-Bowen" /> The wide acceptance of an archetype theory has led to neopagans [[cultural appropriation|adopting the images and names of culturally divergent deities]] for ritual purposes;<ref>Rountree, Kathryn (2004). [https://books.google.com/books?id=-muww8mu50sC&pg=PA46 ''Embracing the Witch and the Goddess: Feminist Ritual-Makers In New Zealand''.] Routledge. p.46. {{ISBN|0-415-30360-5}}, {{ISBN|978-0-415-30360-6}}.</ref> for instance, Conway,{{refn|group=note|{{harvnb|Conway|1995b|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=zsn0LgcUPDoC&pg=PA230 230]}}: "Nov. 27: Day of Parvati-Devi, the Triple Goddess who divided herself into Sarasvati, Lakshmi, and Kali, or the Three Mothers."}} and [[Goddess movement|goddess feminist]] artist [[Monica Sjöö]],<ref>Sjöö, Monica (1992). [https://books.google.com/books?id=umXYAAAAMAAJ&q=%22triple+goddess%22+(kali+%7C+durga)+parvati+lakshmi+(saraswati+%7C+sarasvati) ''New Age and Armageddon: the Goddess or the Gurus? – Towards a Feminist Vision of the Future''.] Women's Press. p.152: "They were white Sarasvati, the red Lakshmi and black Parvati or Kali/Durga – the most ancient triple Goddess of the moon." {{ISBN|0-7043-4263-4}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7043-4263-7}}.</ref> connect the Triple Goddess to the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] [[Tridevi]] (literally "three goddesses") of [[Saraswati]], [[Lakshmi]], and [[Parvati]] ([[Kali]]/[[Durga]]). Several advocates of Wicca, such as [[Vivianne Crowley]] and [[Selena Fox]], are practising psychologists or psychotherapists and looked specifically to the work of [[Carl Jung]] to develop the theory of the Goddess as an archetype.<ref>Morris, Brian (2006). [https://books.google.com/books?id=PguGB_uEQh4C&pg=PA286 ''Religion and Anthropology: a Critical Introduction''.] Cambridge University Press. p.286. {{ISBN|0-521-85241-2}}, {{ISBN|978-0-521-85241-8}}.</ref> [[Wouter J. Hanegraaff]] comments that Vivianne Crowley's works can give the impression that Wicca is little more than a religious and ritual translation of Jungian psychology.{{sfn|Hanegraaff|1996|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yV1ADS0XXf4C&pg=PA90 90]}}

Valerie H. Mantecon follows Annis V. Pratt that the Triple Goddess of Maiden, Mother and Crone is a male invention that both arises from and biases an androcentric view of femininity, and as such the symbolism is often devoid of real meaning or use in depth-psychology for women.<ref>Pratt, Annis V. (1985). "Spinning Among Fields: Jung, Frye, Levi-Strauss and Feminist Archetypal Theory", in Estella Lauter, Carol Schreier Rupprecht (eds.) (1985). ''Feminist Archetypal Theory: Interdisciplinary Re-Visions of Jungian Thought''. University of Tennessee Press. {{ISBN|0-7837-9508-4}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7837-9508-9}}.</ref> Mantecon suggests that a feminist re-visioning of the Crone symbolism away from its usual associations with "death" and towards "wisdom" can be useful in women transitioning to the menopausal phase of life and that the sense of history that comes from working with mythological symbols adds a sense of meaning to the experience.<ref>Mantecon, Valerie H. (1993). ''Where Are the Archetypes? Searching for Symbols of Women's Midlife Passage'', pp.83–87, in Nancy D. Davis, Ellen Cole, Esther D. Rothblum (eds.) (1993). [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZcRYfSDNa0EC&pg=PA83 ''Faces of Women and Aging''.] Routledge. {{ISBN|1-56024-435-6}}, {{ISBN|978-1-56024-435-6}}.</ref>

==Fiction, film, and literary criticism==
Author [[Margaret Atwood]] recalls reading Graves's ''The White Goddess'' at the age of 19. Atwood describes Graves' concept of the Triple Goddess as employing violent and [[misandric]] imagery, and says the restrictive role this model places on creative women put her off being a writer.<ref>Atwood, Margaret (2002). [https://books.google.com/books?id=jLbFlsKMIOQC&pg=PA85 ''Negotiating with the Dead: A Writer on Writing''.] Cambridge University Press. p.85. {{ISBN|0-521-66260-5}}, {{ISBN|978-0-521-66260-4}}.</ref> Atwood's work has been noted as containing Triple Goddess motifs who sometimes appear failed and parodic.<ref>[[Reingard M. Nischik]] (2000). ''Margaret Atwood: Works and Impact''. Boydell & Brewer. {{ISBN|1-57113-139-6}}, {{ISBN|978-1-57113-139-3}}.</ref> Atwood's ''[[Lady Oracle]]'' has been cited as a deliberate parody of the Triple Goddess, which subverts the figure and ultimately liberates the lead female character from the oppressive model of feminine creativity that Graves constructed.<ref>Bouson, J. Brooks (1993). ''Brutal Choreographies: Oppositional Strategies and Narrative Design in the Novels of Margaret Atwood''. University of Massachusetts Press. {{ISBN|0-87023-845-0}}, {{ISBN|978-0-87023-845-1}}.</ref>

Literary critic Andrew D. Radford, discussing the symbolism of [[Thomas Hardy]]'s 1891 novel ''[[Tess of the d'Urbervilles]]'', in terms of Myth sees the Maiden and Mother as two phases of the female lifecycle through which Tess passes, whilst the Crone phase, Tess adopts as a disguise which prepares her for harrowing experiences .<ref>Radford, Andrew D. (2007) [https://books.google.com/books?id=DorQmm7B-5sC&pg=PT129 ''The Lost Girls: Demeter-Persephone and the Literary Imagination, 1850–1930''], Volume 53 of ''Studies in Comparative Literature''. Rodopi. {{ISBN|90-420-2235-3}}, {{ISBN|978-90-420-2235-5}}. p.127-128.</ref>

The concept of the triple goddess has been applied to a feminist reading of [[Shakespeare]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Roberts, Jeanne Addison |year=1987–1988 |title=Shades of the Triple Hecate |journal=Proceedings of the PMR Conference 12–13 |pages=47–66 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Walker, John Lewis |entry=Shades of the Triple Hecate by Jeanne Addison Roberts (abstract) |title=Shakespeare and the Classical Tradition |page=248 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q3Voi0Dk_HwC&q=shades-of-the-triple-hecate&pg=PA248|isbn=9780824066970 |year=2002 |publisher=Taylor & Francis }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Roberts, Jeanne Addison |title=The Shakespearean Wild: Geography, Genus, and Gender |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |year=1994 |pages=142–143, 169ff, passim  |isbn=978-0-8032-8950-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Swift, Carolyn Ruth |title=The Shakespearean Wild |type=Review |journal=Shakespeare Quarterly |volume=44 |issue=1 |date=Spring 1993 |pages=96–100 |jstor=2871177|doi=10.2307/2871177 }}</ref>

[[Thomas DeQuincey]] developed a female trinity, Our Lady of Tears, the Lady of Sighs and Our Lady of Darkness, in ''Suspiria De Profundis'', which has been likened to Graves's Triple Goddess but stamped with DeQuincey's own melancholy sensibility.<ref name="Andriano">Andriano, Joseph (1993). [https://books.google.com/books?id=Mzv9cNaY-qgC&pg=PA96 ''Our Ladies of Darkness: Feminine Daemonology in Male Gothic Fiction''.] Penn State Press. p.96. {{ISBN|0-271-00870-9}}, {{ISBN|978-0-271-00870-7}}.</ref>

According to scholar Juliette Wood, modern fantasy fiction plays a large part in the conceptual landscape of the neo-pagan world.<ref>{{cite book|last=Wood|first=Juliette|title=The Concept of the Goddess|editor1=[[Sandra Billington]] |editor2=Miranda Green |publisher=Routledge|year=1999|page=22|chapter=Chapter 1, The Concept of the Goddess|isbn= 9780415197892|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IoW9yhkrFJoC&pg=PA22|access-date=2009-10-08}}</ref> [[Characters of The Sandman#Three|The three supernatural female figures]] called variously the Ladies, Mother of the Camenae, the Kindly Ones, and a number of other different names in ''[[The Sandman (DC Comics Modern Age)|The Sandman]]'' comic books by [[Neil Gaiman]], merge the figures of the Fates and the Maiden-Mother-Crone goddess.<ref>Sanders, Joseph L., and Gaiman, Neil (2006). ''The Sandman Papers: An Exploration of the Sandman Mythology''. Fantagraphics. p.151. {{ISBN|1-56097-748-5}}, {{ISBN|978-1-56097-748-3}}.</ref> [[Alan Garner]]'s ''[[The Owl Service]]'', based on the fourth branch of the ''[[Mabinogion]]'' and influenced by Robert Graves, clearly delineates the character of the Triple Goddess. Garner goes further in his other novels, making every female character intentionally represent an aspect of the Triple Goddess.<ref name="White">White, Donna R. (1998). [https://books.google.com/books?id=yDVykkOOP6QC&pg=PA75 ''A Century of Welsh Myth in Children's Literature''.] Greenwood Publishing Group. p.75. {{ISBN|0-313-30570-6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-313-30570-2}}.</ref> In [[George R.R. Martin]]'s ''[[A Song of Ice and Fire]]'' series, the Maid, the Mother, and the Crone are three aspects of the septune deity in the [[Poor fellows|Faith of the Seven]], much as the neopagan triple goddess is incorporated in Marion Zimmer Bradley's ''[[The Mists of Avalon]]''.

Graves's Triple Goddess motif has been used by Norman Holland to explore the female characters in [[Alfred Hitchcock]]'s film ''[[Vertigo (film)|Vertigo]]''.<ref>Holland, Norman Norwood (2006). [https://books.google.com/books?id=jDHP-H-ICOMC&pg=PA43 ''Meeting Movies''.] Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. p.43. {{ISBN|0-8386-4099-0}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8386-4099-9}}.</ref> [[Roz Kaveney]] sees the main characters in [[James Cameron]]'s movie ''[[Aliens (film)|Aliens]]'' as: The Alien Queen (Crone), Ripley (Mother) and Newt (Maiden).<ref>Kaveney, Roz (2005). [https://books.google.com/books?id=ci_bkuoCcSIC&pg=PA151 ''From Alien to The Matrix''.] I.B.Tauris. p.151. {{ISBN|1-85043-806-4}}, {{ISBN|978-1-85043-806-9}}.</ref>

American heavy metal band [[The Sword]]'s song, "Maiden, Mother & Crone", on their album ''[[Gods of the Earth]]'', describes an encounter with the Triple Goddess. The video features three aspects of the goddess and a waxing, full, and waning moon.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://radioexile.com/2010/08/21/video-hook-up-the-sword-maiden-mother-crone/ |title=Radio Exile &#124; Video Hook-Up: The Sword – "Maiden, Mother & Crone" |access-date=2010-08-22 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100824164159/http://radioexile.com/2010/08/21/video-hook-up-the-sword-maiden-mother-crone/ |archive-date=2010-08-24 }}</ref>

==See also==
<!-- Please keep entries in alphabetical order [[WP:SEEALSO]] -->
*{{anli|Holly King and Oak King}}
*[[List of lunar deities]]
*{{anli|Tripura Sundari}}
*{{anli|Tritheism}}
*{{anli|Worship of heavenly bodies}}
<!-- please keep entries in alphabetical order -->

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Works cited===
{{refbegin|2|indent=yes}}
*{{cite book |last=Ackerman |first=Robert |year=2002 |title=The Myth and Ritual School: J.G. Frazer and the Cambridge Ritualists |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-93963-8}}
*{{cite book |author-link=Margot Adler |last=Adler |first=Margot |orig-date=1979 |edition=rev. |date=2006 |title=[[Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers, and Other Pagans in America Today]] |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-303819-1}}
*{{cite web |last=Barrett |first=Ruth |date=May 7, 2004 |url=http://www.witchvox.com/va/dt_va.html?a=uswi&c=trads&id=8451 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051111092016/http://www.witchvox.com/va/dt_va.html?a=uswi&c=trads&id=8451 |archive-date=2005-11-11 |title=The Dianic Wiccan Tradition |website=WitchVOX}}
*{{cite book |last=Barrett |first=Ruth |year=2007 |title=Women's Rites, Women's Mysteries: Intuitive Ritual Creation |publisher=Llewellyn |isbn=978-0-7387-0924-6}}
*{{cite book |last=Berger |first=Helen A. |year=2006 |title=Witchcraft and Magic: Contemporary North America |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-1971-5}}
*{{cite book |last=Conway |first=Deanna J. |year=1995 |title=Maiden, Mother, Crone: the Myth and Reality of the Triple Goddess |publisher=Llewellyn |isbn=978-0-87542-171-1}}
*{{cite book |last=Conway |first=Deanna J. |year=1995b |title=Moon Magick: Myth & Magick, Crafts & Recipes, Rituals & Spells |publisher=Llewellyn |isbn=978-1-56718-167-8}}
<!-- G -->
*{{cite book |last=Gilchrist |first=Roberta |year=1999 |title=Gender and Archaeology: Contesting the Past |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-21599-2}}
*{{cite book |last=Gimbutas |first=Marija |author-link=Marija Gimbutas |year=1974 |title=The Goddesses and Gods of Old Europe, 7000-3500 B.C.: Myths, Legends and Cult Images |place=London |publisher=Thames and Hudson |isbn=978-0-500-05014-9}}
*{{cite book |last=Gimbutas |first=Marija |year=1991 |title=The Civilization of the Goddess: The World of Old Europe |publisher=HarperSanFrancisco |isbn=978-0-06-250368-8}}
*{{cite book |last=Gimbutas |first=Marija |year=1999 |title=The Living Goddesses |place=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-21393-7}}
*{{cite book |last=Graves |first=Robert|author-link=Robert Graves |year=1945 |title=Hercules, My Shipmate: A Novel |place=United States |publisher=Creative Age Press, Incorporated}}
*{{cite book |last=Graves |first=Robert |year=1948 |title=[[The White Goddess|The White Goddess: a Historical Grammar of Poetic Myth]] |place=London |publisher=Faber & Faber}}
*{{cite book |last=Graves |first=Robert |year=1961 |title=The White Goddess: a Historical Grammar of Poetic Myth |edition=Amended & enl. [i.e. 4th] |place=London |publisher=Faber & Faber}}
*{{cite book |last=Graves |first=Robert |chapter=The Triple Muse |pages=128–52 |editor1-last=Clifton |editor1-first=Chas |editor2-last=Harvey |editor2-first=Graham |year=2004 |title=The Paganism Reader |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-30352-1}}
*{{cite book |last=Graves |first=Robert|year=2017 |title=[[The Greek Myths|The Greek Myths: The Complete and Definitive Edition]] |publisher=Penguin UK |isbn=978-0241982358}}
*{{cite book |last=Green |first=C. M. C. |year=2007 |title=Roman Religion and the Cult of Diana at Aricia |place=New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521851589}}
*{{cite book |last=Greer |first=John Michael |author-link=John Michael Greer |title=The New Encyclopedia of the Occult |publisher=Llewellyn |year=2003 |isbn= 978-1567183368}}
<!-- H -->
* {{cite book |last=Hanegraaff |first=Wouter |author-link=Wouter Hanegraaff |title=New Age Religion and Western Culture: Esotericism in the Mirror of Secular Thought |year=1996 |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |series=Numen Book Series: Studies in the History of Religions |volume=LXXII |isbn=978-90-04-10696-3}}
*{{cite book |last=Harrison |first=Jane Ellen |author-link=Jane Ellen Harrison |year=1908 |orig-year=1903 |title=Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion |edition=2nd |place=Cambridge |publisher=University Press |isbn=978-0524043394}}
*{{cite book |last=Harrison |first=Jane Ellen |year=1912 |url=https://archive.org/details/themisstudyofsoc0000harr |title=Themis: A Study of the Social Origins of Greek Religion |place=Cambridge |publisher=University Press |url-access=registration}}
*{{cite book |last=Harrison |first=Jane Ellen |year=1913 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jb4JAQAAIAAJ |title=Ancient Art and Ritual |place=New York |publisher=Henry Holt and Company|isbn=9780837119816 }}
*{{cite book |last=Harvey |first=Graham |author-link=Graham Harvey (religious studies scholar) |chapter=Introduction to "The Triple Muse" |editor1-last=Clifton |editor1-first=Chas |editor2-last=Harvey |editor2-first=Graham |year=2004 |title=The Paganism Reader |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-30352-1 |pages=129ff}}
*{{cite journal |last=Hutton |first=Ronald |author-link=Ronald Hutton |date=March 1997 |title=The Neolithic great goddess: A study in modern tradition |journal=[[Antiquity (journal)|Antiquity]] |volume=71 |number=271 |pages=91–99 |doi=10.1017/S0003598X0008457X|s2cid=153668277 }}
*{{cite book |last=Hutton |first=Ronald |year=2001 |title=The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-285449-0}}
<!-- J -->
*{{cite journal |last=Jones |first=P. |year=2005 |title=A Goddess Arrives: Nineteenth Century Sources of the New Age Triple Moon Goddess |journal=[[Culture and Cosmos]] |volume=19 |number=1 |pages=45–70 |url=https://www.academia.edu/34350052 |via=Academia.edu}}
*{{cite book |last=Jung |first=Carl Gustav |orig-year=1942 |chapter=A Psychological Approach to the Dogma of the Trinity |series=Collected Works |title=Psychology and Religion: West and East |volume=11 |edition=2nd |year=1966 |publisher=Pantheon Books}}
*{{cite book |last1=Jung |first1=C. G. |last2=Kerényi |first2=C. |year=1949 |title=Essays on a Science of Mythology: the Myth of the Divine Child and the Mysteries of Eleusis |publisher=Pantheon Books}}
*{{cite book |last=Kerényi |first=C. |title=Athene: Virgin and Mother in Greek Religion |year=1978 |translator=Murray Stein |orig-year=1952 |publisher=Spring Publications |place=Zurich}}
<!-- M -->
*{{cite journal |last=Meskell |first=Lynn |author-link=Lynn Meskell |year=1995 |title=Goddesses, Gimbutas and New Age archaeology |journal=Antiquity |volume=69 |number=262 |pages=74–86 |doi=10.1017/S0003598X00064310 |s2cid=162614650}}
*{{cite book |last=Meskell |first=Lynn |year=1999 |chapter=Feminism, Paganism, Pluralism |editor1-last=Gazin-Schwartz |editor1-first=Amy |editor2-last=Holtorf |editor2-first=Cornelius |title=Archaeology and Folklore |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-20144-5}}
*{{cite news |first=Deborah |last=Netburn |date=September 18, 2021 |title=This feminist witch introduced California to Goddess worship |newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]] |url=https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2021-09-18/this-feminist-witch-introduced-california-to-goddess-worship |access-date=2023-01-08}}
*{{cite book |last=Neumann |first=Erich |author-link=Erich Neumann (psychologist) |year=1955 |title=The Great Mother: an Analysis of the Archetype |publisher=Pantheon Books}}
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*{{cite book |last=Seymour |first=Miranda|year=2003 |title=Robert Graves: Life on the Edge |publisher=Scribner |isbn=978-0743232197}}
*{{cite journal |last=Talalay |first=Lauren E. |year=1999 |url=http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/bmcr/1999/1999-10-05.html |title=(Review of) ''The Living Goddesses'' |journal=Bryn Mawr Classical Review |date=5 October 1999}}
*{{cite book |last=Von Hendy |first=Andrew |year=2002 |title=The Modern Construction of Myth |edition=2nd |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-33996-6}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book |editor1-last=Clifton |editor1-first=Chas |editor1-link=Chas Clifton |editor2-last=Harvey |editor2-first=Graham |editor2-link=Graham Harvey (religious studies scholar) |year=2004 |title=The Paganism Reader |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-30352-1}}

{{WiccaandWitchcraft}}
{{Neopaganism|state=collapsed}}

[[Category:Earth goddesses]]
[[Category:Fertility goddesses]]
[[Category:Hecate]]
[[Category:Lunar goddesses]]
[[Category:Magic goddesses]]
[[Category:Modern pagan theology]]
[[Category:Mother goddesses]]
[[Category:New religious movement deities]]
[[Category:Triple goddesses]]
[[Category:Virgin goddesses]]
[[Category:Wicca]]
[[Category:Wisdom goddesses]]
[[Category:Crones]]