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{{Infobox information appliance
| name = Xerox Alto
| image = Xerox Alto mit Rechner.JPG
| image_size = 240px
| caption = The monitor of the Xerox Alto has a [[page orientation|portrait orientation]].
| developer = [[Xerox]] [[PARC (company)|PARC]]
| manufacturer = [[PARC (company)|Xerox PARC]]
| type = 
| release date = {{Start date and age|1973|03|01}}
| connectivity = [[Ethernet]]
| lifespan = 
| price = US$32,000 in 1979 ({{Inflation|US|32000|1979|fmt=eq}}){{Inflation-fn|US}}<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Wadlow |first=Thomas |title=The Xerox Alto Computer |magazine=Byte Magazine |year=1981 |volume=6 |issue=9 |url=https://archive.org/details/byte-magazine-1981-09/page/n59}}</ref>
| units shipped = Alto I: 120<br>Alto II: 2,000<ref>[http://www.digibarn.com/collections/audio/digibarn-radio/ron-cude-xerox/ron-cude-xerox-fumbling-future-and-elixir.mp3 MP3 Audio of Ron Cude talking about the 1979 Boca Raton Alto Event.] The DigiBarn Computer Museum, 2003.</ref>
| media = 2.5 [[megabyte|MB]] one-platter [[ROM cartridge|cartridge]]<ref name=alto/>
| os = Alto Executive  (Exec)
| input = [[Computer keyboard|Keyboard]], 3-button [[Mouse (computing)|mouse]], 5-key [[chorded keyboard]]
| power = 
| cpu = [[transistor–transistor logic|TTL]]-based, with the [[arithmetic logic unit|ALU]] built around four [[74181]] [[medium-scale integration|MSI]] chips. It has user programmable [[microcode]], uses [[big-endian]] format and a [[CPU clock]] of {{nowrap|5.88 MHz}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Alto I Schematics|url=http://bitsavers.org/pdf/xerox/alto/schematics/AltoI_Schematics.pdf|website=Bitsavers|accessdate=21 July 2016|page=54}}</ref><ref name=alto>{{cite web|title=History of Computers and Computing, Birth of the modern computer, Personal computer, Xerox Alto
|date=
|accessdate=2016-04-19
|url=http://history-computer.com/ModernComputer/Personal/Alto.html}}</ref>
| storage = 
| memory = 96<ref name="manual">{{cite book|title=Alto Operating System Reference Manual|date=26 June 1975|publisher=Xerox PARC|page=2|url=http://bitsavers.org/pdf/xerox/alto/memos_1975/Alto_Operating_System_Reference_Manual_Jun75.pdf|accessdate=21 July 2016}}</ref>-512 [[kilobyte|kB]] (128 kB for 4000 USD)<ref name=alto/>
| display = 606×808 pixels<ref name=alto/>
| audio = 
| service = <!-- online service/s offered -->
| dimensions = 
| weight = 
| touchpad = 
| related = [[Xerox Star]]; [[Apple Lisa]], [[Macintosh]]
}}

The '''Xerox Alto''' is the first computer designed from its inception to support an [[operating system]] based on a [[graphical user interface]] (GUI), later using the [[desktop metaphor]].<ref>{{cite document |last1= Koved |first1= Larry |first2= Ted |last2= Selker |title= Room with a view (RWAV): A metaphor for interactive computing. |citeseerx=10.1.1.22.1340 |publisher= IBM TJ Watson Research Center |date= 1999}}</ref><ref>Thacker, Charles P., et al. [http://research.microsoft.com/en-us/um/people/blampson/25-Alto/25-Alto.pdf Alto: A personal computer.] Xerox, Palo Alto Research Center, 1979.</ref> The first machines were introduced on 1 March 1973,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.xtimeline.com/evt/view.aspx?id%3D292762 |title=1970-1975 (Josh + Julli) &#124; Technology Xerox Alto(The First Personal Computer) &#124; Event view |accessdate=June 25, 2013 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131113203320/http://www.xtimeline.com/evt/view.aspx?id=292762 |archivedate=November 13, 2013 }}</ref> a decade before mass-market GUI machines became available.

The Alto is contained in a relatively small cabinet and uses a custom [[central processing unit]] (CPU) built from multiple [[Integrated circuit#SSI, MSI and LSI|SSI and MSI]] [[integrated circuit]]s. Each machine cost tens of thousands of dollars despite its status as a [[personal computer]]. Only small numbers were built initially, but by the late 1970s, about 1,000 were in use at various Xerox laboratories, and about another 500 in several universities. Total production was about 2,000 systems.

The Alto became well known in [[Silicon Valley]] and its GUI was increasingly seen as the future of computing. In 1979, [[Steve Jobs]] arranged a visit to Xerox PARC, during which [[Apple Inc.|Apple Computer]] personnel would receive demonstrations of Xerox technology in exchange for Xerox being able to purchase stock [[Option (finance)|options]] in Apple.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://web.stanford.edu/dept/SUL/sites/mac/parc.html|title=The Xerox PARC Visit|website=web.stanford.edu|access-date=2018-09-02}}</ref> After two visits to see the Alto, Apple engineers used the concepts to introduce the [[Apple Lisa]] and [[Macintosh]] systems.

Xerox eventually commercialized a heavily modified version of the Alto concepts as the [[Xerox Star]], first introduced in 1981. A complete office system including several workstations, storage and a [[laser printing|laser printer]] cost as much as $100,000, and like the Alto, the Star had little direct impact on the market.

==History==
[[File:Computer Museum of America (02).jpg|right|thumb|Alto mouse]]
The Alto was conceived in 1972 in a memo written by [[Butler Lampson]], inspired by the [[NLS (computer system)|oN-Line System]] (NLS) developed by [[Douglas Engelbart]] and Dustin Lindberg at [[SRI International]] (SRI). It was designed mostly by [[Charles P. Thacker]]. Industrial Design and manufacturing was sub-contracted to [[Xerox]], whose Special Programs Group team included Doug Stewart as Program Manager, Abbey Silverstone Operations, Bob Nishimura, Industrial Designer. An initial run of 30 units was produced by Xerox El Segundo (Special Programs Group), working with [[John Ellenby]] at PARC and Doug Stewart and [[Abbey Silverstone]] at El Segundo, who were responsible for re-designing the Alto's electronics. Due to the success of the pilot run, the team went on to produce approximately 2,000 units over the next ten years.<ref name=clement>"The History of the Xerox Alto". Carl J. Clement. March, 2002.</ref>

Several Xerox Alto chassis are now on display at the [[Computer History Museum]] in [[Mountain View, California]], one is on display at the Computer Museum of America in [[Roswell, Georgia]], and several are in private hands.  Running systems are on display at the [[Living Computers: Museum + Labs|Living Computer Museum]] in [[Seattle]], [[Washington (state)|Washington]]. Charles P. Thacker was awarded the 2009 [[Turing Award]] of the [[Association for Computing Machinery]] on March 9, 2010 for his pioneering design and realization of the Alto.<ref>{{cite web|title=ACM Turing Award Goes to Creator of First Modern Personal Computer|url=http://www.acm.org/press-room/news-releases/2010/turing-award-09|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|accessdate=11 January 2011|author=Virginia Gold}}</ref> The 2004 [[Charles Stark Draper Prize]] was awarded to Thacker, [[Alan Kay|Alan C. Kay]], Butler Lampson, and [[Robert Taylor (computer scientist)|Robert W. Taylor]] for their work on Alto.<ref>[http://www.nae.edu/Activities/Projects20676/Awards/20681/PastWinners/page20048879.aspx "2004 Recipients of the Charles Stark Draper Prize"]</ref>

On October 21, 2014, Xerox Alto's [[source code]] and other resources were released from the [[Computer History Museum]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.computerhistory.org/atchm/xerox-alto-source-code/|quote=''With the permission of the Palo Alto Research Center, the Computer History Museum is pleased to make available, for non-commercial use only, snapshots of Alto source code, executables, documentation, font files, and other files from 1975 to 1987.'' |title=Xerox Alto Source Code - The roots of the modern personal computer|publisher=[[Computer History Museum]]|first=Paul |last=McJones |work=Software Gems: The Computer History Museum Historical Source Code Series |date=2014-10-21 |accessdate=2015-01-08}}</ref>

==Architecture==
The following description is based mostly on the August 1976 Alto Hardware Manual<ref name="AltoHardwareManual">{{cite web |title=Alto Hardware Manual |url=http://bitsavers.org/pdf/xerox/alto/Alto_Hardware_Manual_Aug76.pdf |website=bitsavers.org |publisher=Xerox |accessdate=17 July 2019}}</ref> by Xerox PARC.

Alto uses a microcoded design, but unlike many computers, the [[microcode]] engine is not hidden from the programmer in a layered design. Applications such as Pinball take advantage of this to accelerate performance. The Alto has a [[bit slicing|bit-slice]] [[arithmetic logic unit]] (ALU) based on the [[Texas Instruments]] [[74181]] chip, a ROM control store with a [[writable control store]] extension and has 128 (expandable to 512) [[kilobyte|kB]] of [[Computer data storage#Primary storage|main memory]] organized in 16-bit words. Mass storage is provided by a [[hard disk drive]] that uses a removable 2.5 [[megabyte|MB]] one-platter cartridge ([[Diablo Systems]], a company Xerox later bought) similar to those used by the [[IBM 2310]]. The base machine and one disk drive are housed in a cabinet about the size of a small [[refrigerator]]; one more disk drive can be added via [[daisy chain (electrical engineering)|daisy-chaining]].

Alto both blurred and ignored the lines between functional elements. Rather than a distinct [[central processing unit]] with a well-defined electrical interface (e.g., [[system bus]]) to storage and peripherals, the Alto ALU interacts directly with hardware interfaces to memory and peripherals, driven by [[microinstruction]]s that are output from the control store. The microcode machine supports up to 16 [[Cooperative multitasking|cooperative]] tasks, each with [[Scheduling (computing)|fixed priority]]. The emulator task executes the normal instruction set to which most applications are written; that instruction set is similar to, but not the same as, that of a [[Data General Nova]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/xerox/alto/memos_1974/Alto_A_Personal_Computer_Dec74.pdf|title=Alto: A Personal Computer System|author1=Charles P. Thacker|author2=Edward M. McCreight|page=13|date=December 1974}}</ref> Other tasks serve the display, memory refresh, disk, network, and other I/O functions. As an example, the bitmap display controller is little more than a 16-[[bit]] [[shift register]]; microcode moves display refresh data from main memory to the shift register, which serializes it into a display of pixels corresponding to the ones and zeros of the memory data. Ethernet is likewise supported by minimal hardware, with a shift register that acts bidirectionally to serialize output words and deserialize input words. Its speed was designed to be 3 Mbit/s because the microcode engine could not go faster and continue to support the video display, disk activity and memory refresh.

Unlike most [[minicomputer]]s of the era, Alto does not support a [[computer terminal|serial terminal]] for user interface. Apart from an [[Ethernet]] connection, the Alto's only common output device is a bi-level (black and white) [[cathode ray tube]] (CRT) [[computer monitor|display]] with a tilt-and-swivel base, mounted in [[page orientation|portrait orientation]] rather than the more common "landscape" orientation. Its input devices are a custom detachable [[Computer keyboard|keyboard]], a three-button [[computer mouse|mouse]], and an optional 5-key [[chorded keyboard]] (chord keyset). The last two items had been introduced by SRI's On-Line System; while the mouse was an instant success among Alto users, the chord keyset never became popular.

In the early mice, the buttons were three narrow bars, arranged top to bottom rather than side to side; they were named after their colors in the documentation. The motion was sensed by two wheels perpendicular to each other. These were soon replaced with a ball-type mouse, which was invented by Ronald E. Rider and developed by [[Bill English (computer engineer)|Bill English]]. These were photo-mechanical mice, first using white light, and then [[infrared]] (IR), to count the rotations of wheels inside the mouse.

The keyboard is interesting in that each key is represented as a separate bit in a set of memory locations. As a result, it is possible to read [[ Rollover (key)#n-key rollover | multiple key presses concurrently]]. This trait can be used to alter from where on the disk the Alto boots. The keyboard value is used as the sector address on the disk to boot from, and by holding specific keys down while pressing the boot button, different microcode and operating systems can be loaded. This gave rise to the expression "nose boot" where the keys needed to boot for a test OS release required more fingers than you could come up with. Nose boots were made obsolete by the ''move2keys'' program that shifted files on the disk so that a specified key sequence could be used.

Several other I/O devices were developed for the Alto, including a TV camera, the Hy-Type daisywheel printer and a parallel port, although these were quite rare. The Alto could also control external disk drives to act as a file server. This was a common application for the machine.

==Software==

[[File:Smalltalk-76.png|thumb|Smalltalk-76 aka interim Alan Kay's Dynabook OS]]
Early software for the Alto was written in the [[programming language]] [[BCPL]], and later in [[Mesa (programming language)|Mesa]],{{r|wadlow198109}} which was not widely used outside PARC but influenced several later languages, such as [[Modula]]. The Alto used an early version of [[ASCII]] which lacked the [[underscore]] character, instead having the left-arrow character used in [[ALGOL 60]] and many derivatives for the [[assignment operator]]: this peculiarity may have been the source of the [[CamelCase]] style for compound [[identifier]]s. Altos were also microcode-programmable by users.<ref name="AltoHardwareManual"/>

The Alto helped popularize the use of [[raster graphics]] model for all output, including text and graphics. It also introduced the concept of the ''bit block transfer'' operation ([[bit blit]], BitBLT), as the fundamental programming interface to the display. Despite its small memory size, many innovative programs were written for the Alto, including:
* the first [[WYSIWYG]] [[Typesetting|document preparation systems]], [[Bravo (software)|Bravo]] and [[Gypsy (software)|Gypsy]];
* the Laurel [[email]] tool,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://xeroxalto.computerhistory.org/Indigo/DMS/Laurel/6/Manual/.Laurel6.press!1.pdf|title=Laurel Manual|author=Douglas K. Brotz|date=May 1981|publisher=Xerox}}</ref> and its successor, Hardy<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.herald-journal.com/archives/2011/columns/mo103111.html|title=They could have owned the computer industry|author=Mark Ollig|date=October 31, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thocp.net/hardware/xerox_star.htm|title=Xerox Star|website=The History Of Computing Project}}</ref>
* the Sil vector graphics editor, used mainly for logic circuits, [[printed circuit board]], and other technical diagrams;
* the Markup [[bitmap]] editor (an early [[raster graphics editor|paint program]]);
* the Draw graphical editor using lines & splines;
* the first WYSIWYG [[IC layout editor|integrated circuit editor]] based on the work of [[Lynn Conway]], [[Carver Mead]], and the [[Mead & Conway revolution]];
* the first versions of the [[Smalltalk]] environment
* [[Interlisp]]
* one of the first network-based multi-person [[video game]]s (''[[Alto Trek]]'' by [[Gene Ball]]).
There was no spreadsheet or database software. The first electronic spreadsheet program, [[VisiCalc]], did not arise until 1979.

==Diffusion and evolution==
Technically, the Alto was a small minicomputer, but it could be considered a [[personal computer]] in the sense that it was used by one person sitting at a desk, in contrast with the [[mainframe computer]]s and other [[minicomputer]]s of the era. It was arguably "the first personal computer", although this title is disputed by others. More significantly (and perhaps less controversially), it may be considered to be one of the first [[workstation]] systems in the style of single-user machines such as the [[Apollo/Domain|Apollo]], based on the [[Unix]] operating system, and systems by [[Symbolics]], designed to natively run [[Lisp (programming language)|Lisp]] as a development environment.<ref>{{cite web  |title=Personal Computer Milestones  |publisher=Blinkenlights Archaeological Institute  |url=http://www.blinkenlights.com/pc.shtml  |accessdate=December 31, 2006}}</ref>

In 1976 to 1977 the Swiss computer pioneer [[Niklaus Wirth]] spent a sabbatical at PARC and was excited by the Alto. Unable to bring back one of the Alto systems to Europe, Wirth decided to build a new system from scratch and he designed with his group the [[Lilith (computer)|Lilith]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethistory.ethz.ch/rueckblicke/departemente/dinfk/forschung/weitere_seiten/lilith/index_EN/popupfriendly/|title=Lilith Workstation|accessdate=3 January 2017}}</ref> Lilith was ready to use around 1980, quite some time before [[Apple Lisa]] and [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] [[Macintosh]] were released. Around 1985 Wirth started a complete redesign of the Lilith under the Name [[Oberon (operating system)|"Project Oberon"]]. 

In 1978 Xerox donated 50 Altos to the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], [[Stanford University]], [[Carnegie Mellon University]],<ref name="wadlow198109">{{cite news |url=https://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1981-09/BYTE_Vol_06-09_1981-09_Artifical_Intelligence#page/n59/mode/2up |title=The Xerox Alto Computer |work=Byte |date=September 1981 |accessdate=19 October 2013 |author=Wadlow, Thomas A |pages=58}}</ref> and the [[University of Rochester]].<ref name="denber198202">{{cite news |url=https://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1982-02/1982_02_BYTE_07-02_Winter_Computing#page/n29/mode/2up |title=Altos Gamesmen |work=Byte |date=February 1982 |accessdate=October 19, 2013 |author=Denber, Michel |type=letter |pages=28}}</ref> The [[National Bureau of Standards]]'s Institute for Computer Sciences in [[Gaithersburg, Maryland]] received one Alto in late 1978 along with Xerox Interim File System (IFS) file servers and Dover laser printers. These machines were the inspiration for the ETH Zürich [[Lilith (computer)|Lilith]] and Three Rivers Company [[PERQ]] workstations, and the [[Stanford University Network]] (SUN) workstation, which was eventually marketed by a spin-off company, [[Sun Microsystems]]. The [[Apollo/Domain]] workstation was heavily influenced by the Alto.

Following the acquisition of an Alto, the White House information systems department sought to lead federal computer suppliers in its direction. The [[Executive Office of the President of the United States]] (EOP) issued a [[request for proposal]] for a computer system to replace the aging [[Office of Management and Budget]] (OMB) budget system, using Alto-like workstations, connected to an IBM-compatible mainframe. The request was eventually withdrawn because no mainframe producer could supply such a configuration.

In December 1979, [[Apple Inc.|Apple Computer]]'s co-founder [[Steve Jobs]] visited Xerox PARC, where he was shown the [[Smalltalk]]-80 object-oriented programming environment, networking, and most importantly the [[WYSIWYG]], mouse-driven [[graphical user interface]] provided by the Alto. At the time, he didn't recognize the significance of the first two, but was excited by the last one, promptly integrating it into Apple's products; first into the [[Apple Lisa|Lisa]] and then in the [[Macintosh]], attracting several key researchers to work in his company.<ref name=nerds>{{cite web  |title=PBS Triumph of the Nerds Television Program Transcripts: Part III |publisher=PBS (Public Broadcasting System) |url=https://www.pbs.org/nerds/part3.html  |accessdate=February 8, 2007}}</ref>

In 1980–1981, Xerox Altos were used by engineers at PARC and at the Xerox System Development Department to design the [[Xerox Star]] workstations.

==Xerox and the Alto==
Xerox was slow to realize the value of the technology that had been developed at PARC.<ref name=fumble>{{cite book  |author= Douglas K. Smith  |author2= Robert C. Alexander  |title= Fumbling the Future: How Xerox Invented, Then Ignored, the First Personal Computer  |publisher= William Morrow  |location= New York  |year= 1988 |isbn= 978-0688069599}}</ref> The Xerox corporate acquisition of [[Scientific Data Systems]] (SDS, later XDS) in the late 1960s had no interest with PARC. PARC built their own emulation of the Digital Equipment Corporation [[PDP-10]] named the MAXC.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0bbe/4be10b2770fa6435e00cea74ee5f6c4f1115.pdf|title=The Maxc Systems|author=Edward R. Fiala|magazine=[[Computer (magazine)|Computer]]|date=May 1978|volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=57–67 |doi=10.1109/C-M.1978.218184 |s2cid=16813696 }}</ref> The MAXC was PARC's gateway machine to the [[ARPANET]]. The firm was reluctant to get into the computer business again with commercially untested designs, although many of the philosophies would ship in later products.

''[[Byte (magazine)|Byte]]'' magazine stated in 1981,{{r|wadlow198109}}

{{quote|It is unlikely that a person outside of the computer-science research community will ever be able to buy an Alto. They are not intended for commercial sale, but rather as development tools for Xerox, and so will not be mass-produced. What makes them worthy of mention is the fact that a large number of the personal computers of tomorrow will be designed with knowledge gained from the development of the Alto.}}

After the Alto, PARC developed more powerful workstations (none intended as projects{{clarify|date=June 2013}}) informally termed "the D-machines": Dandelion (least powerful, but the only to be made a product in one form), Dolphin; Dorado (most powerful; an [[emitter-coupled logic]] (ECL) machine); and hybrids like the Dandel-Iris.

Before the advent of personal computers such as the [[Apple II]] in 1977 and the [[IBM Personal Computer]] (IBM PC) in 1981, the computer market was dominated by costly mainframes and minicomputers equipped with dumb terminals that time-shared the processing time of the central computer. Through the 1970s, Xerox showed no interest in the work done at PARC. When Xerox finally entered the PC market with the [[Xerox 820]], they pointedly rejected the Alto design and opted instead for a very conventional model, a [[CP/M]]-based machine with the then-standard 80 by 24 character-only monitor and no mouse.

With the help of PARC researchers, Xerox eventually developed the [[Xerox Star]], based on the Dandelion workstation, and later the cost reduced Star, the 6085 office system, based on the [[Xerox Daybreak|Daybreak]] workstation. These machines, based on the 'Wildflower' architecture described in a paper by [[Butler Lampson]], incorporated most of the Alto innovations, including the [[graphical user interface]] with icons, windows, folders, Ethernet-based local networking, and network-based laser printer services.

Xerox only realized their mistake in the early 1980s, after Apple's [[Macintosh]] revolutionized the PC market via its bitmap display and the mouse-centered interface. Both of these were copied from the Alto.<ref name=fumble/> While the Xerox Star series was a relative commercial success, it came too late. The expensive Xerox workstations could not compete against the cheaper GUI-based workstations that arose in the wake of the first Macintosh, and Xerox eventually quit the workstation market for good.

==See also==
*[[NLS (computer system)]]
*[[Mousepad]]
*[[Alan Kay]]
*[[Adele Goldberg (computer scientist)]]
*[[Apple Lisa]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
;Notes
{{Refbegin}}
*''Alto User's Handbook'', Xerox PARC, September 2013
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book |title=Dealers of Lightning: Xerox PARC and the Dawn of the Computer Age |last=Hiltzik |first=Michael A. |authorlink= |year=1999 |publisher=HarperCollins |location=New York |isbn=0-88730-891-0 |page= |pages= |url=https://archive.org/details/dealersoflightni00hilt |url-access=registration }}

*{{cite book  |author= Douglas K. Smith  |author2= Robert C. Alexander  |title= Fumbling the Future: How Xerox Invented, Then Ignored, the First Personal Computer  |publisher= William Morrow  |location= New York  |year= 1988 |isbn= 978-0688069599}}

==External links==
*[http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/xerox/alto/ Xerox Alto documents at bitsavers.org]
*[http://www.digibarn.com/collections/systems/xerox-alto/ At the DigiBarn museum]
*[http://www.maniacworld.com/alto-computer-video.html The Alto in 1974] video
*[http://norfolk.cs.washington.edu/htbin-post/unrestricted/colloq/details.cgi?id=560 A lecture video of Butler Lampson describing Xerox Alto in depth. (length: 2h45m)]
*[http://altogether.brouhaha.com A microcode-level Xerox Alto simulator]
*[https://www.livingcomputers.org/Computer-Collection/Vintage-Computers/Emulations/ContrAlto.aspx ContrAlto Xerox Alto emulator]
*[http://toastytech.com/guis/salto.zip SALTO-Xerox Alto emulator]
*[https://static.loomcom.com/contraltojs/ ConrAltoJS Xerox Alto Online]

[[:Category:Computer-related introductions in 1973]]
[[:Category:Xerox computers|Alto]]
[[:Category:Personal computers]]
[[:Category:Computer workstations]]