List of life sciences: Difference between revisions

{{TAFI}}

The '''life sciences''' comprise the [[fields of science]] that involve the scientific study of [[living organism]]s – such as [[microorganism]]s, [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, and [[human being]]s – as well as related considerations like [[bioethics]]. While [[biology]] remains the centerpiece of the life sciences, [[Technology|technological]] advances in [[molecular biology]] and [[biotechnology]] have led to a burgeoning of specializations and [[interdisciplinary]] fields.<ref name=NYLS>{{cite web|title=Life Sciences|url=http://esd.ny.gov/whynewyork/LifeSciences.html|work=[[Empire State Development Corporation]]|publisher=[[Government of New York]]|accessdate=3 February 2014}}</ref>

Some life sciences focus on a specific type of life. For example, [[zoology]] is the study of [[animals]], while [[botany]] is the study of [[plants]]. Other life sciences focus on aspects common to all or many life forms, such as [[anatomy]] and [[genetics]]. Yet other fields are interested in [[technological]] advances involving living things, such as [[bio-engineering]]. Another major, though more specific, branch of life sciences involves understanding the [[mind]]{{spaced ndash}}[[neuroscience]].

The life sciences are helpful in improving the quality and standard of life. They have applications in health, agriculture, medicine, and the pharmaceutical and food science industries.

There is considerable overlap between many of the topics of study in the life sciences.

==Topics of study==

===Affective neuroscience===

[[File:EQbrain optical stim en.jpg|thumb|upright|Brain parts involved with a fear [[amygdala hijack]] from optical stimulus]]

{{main|Affective neuroscience}}

Affective neuroscience is the study of the neural mechanisms of [[emotion]]. This interdisciplinary field combines [[neuroscience]] with the [[psychology|psychological study]] of [[personality psychology|personality]], [[emotion]], and [[Mood (psychology)|mood]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Panksepp J|chapter=A role for "affective neuroscience" in understanding stress: the case of separation distress circuitry|editor=Puglisi-Allegra S, Oliverio A|isbn=0-7923-0682-1|location=Dordrecht, Netherlands|pages=41–58|publisher=Kluwer Academic|title=Psychobiology of Stress|year=1992}}</ref>

===Anatomy===

[[File:MRI brain sagittal section.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Sagittal [[Magnetic resonance imaging|MRI]] scan of the head]]

{{main|Anatomy}}

Anatomy is the study of the [[body plan]] of animals, divided into gross (or [[Macroscopic scale|macroscopic]]) anatomy and [[Microscopic scale|microscopic]] anatomy including [[histology]] (the study of tissues) and [[Cell biology|cytology]] (the study of cells), and with facets including [[comparative anatomy]] and [[Phylogenetics|comparative embryology]].<ref name="intro HGray">{{cite web | url=http://www.bartleby.com/107/1.html| title= Introduction page, "Anatomy of the Human Body". Henry Gray. 20th edition. 1918| accessdate =19 March 2007| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070316005206/http://www.bartleby.com/107/1.html| archivedate= 16 March 2007}}</ref> [[Human anatomy]] is important in medicine. The [[history of anatomy]] shows rising understanding of the [[organ (anatomy)|organs]] and structures of the [[human body]], and improving methods from [[dissection]] of [[cadaver]]s to [[X-ray machine|X-ray]], [[Ultrasound imaging|ultrasound]], and [[MRI|magnetic resonance imaging]].

===Astrobiology===

{{main|Astrobiology}}

[[Image:Telescope Kepler-NASA.jpeg|thumb|right|upright|The [[NASA]] [[Kepler mission]], launched in March 2009, searches for [[extrasolar planets]]]]

Astrobiology is the study of the [[abiogenesis|origin]], [[evolution]], distribution, and future of life in the universe: [[extraterrestrial life]] and [[life on Earth]], and the search for habitable environments in our [[Solar System]] and [[Planetary habitability|habitable planets]] outside our Solar System, the search for prebiotic chemistry, and research into the origins of life.<ref>{{cite news | first = [[Charles S. Cockell]] | title = How the search for aliens can help sustain life on Earth | date =4 October 2012 | url = http://edition.cnn.com/2012/10/02/world/europe/astrobiology-aliens-environment-opinion/index.html?hpt=hp_c4 | work = CNN News | accessdate = 2012-10-08}}</ref><ref name="about">{{cite web|url=http://astrobiology.nasa.gov/about-astrobiology/ |title=About Astrobiology |accessdate=2008-10-20 |date=21 January 2008 |work=NASA Astrobiology Institute |publisher=NASA | archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20081011192341/http://astrobiology.nasa.gov/about-astrobiology/| archivedate= 11 October 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Astrobiology makes use of [[physics]], [[chemistry]], [[astronomy]], [[biology]], [[molecular biology]], [[ecology]], [[planetary science]], [[geography]], and [[geology]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.itwire.com.au/content/view/11647/1066/ |title=Scientists will look for alien life, but Where and How? |publisher=ITWire |date= |accessdate=9 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The life and death of planet Earth |last=Ward |first=P. D. |authorlink= |coauthors=Brownlee, D. |year=2004 |publisher=Owl Books |location=New York |isbn=0-8050-7512-7 |pages= }}</ref>

===Biochemistry===

{{main|Biochemistry}}

[[Image:1GZX Haemoglobin.png|thumb|right|upright|A schematic of [[hemoglobin]]. The red and blue ribbons represent the protein [[globin]]; the green structures are the [[heme]] groups.]]

Biochemistry is the study of [[chemistry|chemical]] processes in the [[Cell (biology)|cells]] of living [[organism]]s.<ref>[http://portal.acs.org/portal/acs/corg/content?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=PP_ARTICLEMAIN&node_id=1188&content_id=CTP_003379&use_sec=true&sec_url_var=region1&__uuid=aa3f2aa3-8047-4fa2-88b8-32ffcad3a93e ]{{dead link|date=February 2014}}</ref> By controlling information flow through biochemical signaling and the flow of chemical energy through [[metabolism]], these processes give rise to the complexity of [[life]]. Closely related to [[molecular biology]], it contributes to life sciences from [[botany]] to [[medicine]].<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.biochemistry.org/Education/Careers/Schoolsandcolleges/Whatisbiochemistry.aspx|title= scientific term 'biochemistry'}}</ref> It deals with [[macromolecule]]s, such as [[protein]]s, [[nucleic acid]]s, [[carbohydrate]]s and [[lipid]]s, as well as smaller [[molecule]]s such as [[amino acids]].

===Biocomputers===

{{main|Biocomputers}}

Biocomputers use systems of biologically derived molecules, such as [[DNA]] and [[proteins]], to perform computational [[calculation]]s involving storing, retrieving, and processing [[data]]. The development of biocomputers has been made possible by the expanding new science of [[nanobiotechnology]].

===Biocontrol===

{{main|Biocontrol}}

[[File:Encarsia formosa, an endoparasitic wasp, is used for whitefly control.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Encarsia formosa]] was one of the first biological control agents developed.]]

Biological control (known as biological control) is a [[bioeffector]]-method of [[pest control|controlling pests]] (including [[insect]]s, [[mite]]s, [[weed]]s and [[phytopathology|plant diseases]]) using other living organisms.<ref>{{cite book|authors=Flint, Maria Louise & Dreistadt, Steve H.|editor=Clark, Jack K.|title=Natural Enemies Handbook: The Illustrated Guide to Biological Pest Control|publisher=University of California Press|year=1998|isbn=9780520218017|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=FBJvpMqcV9UC&printsec=frontcover}}</ref>

===Biodynamics===

{{main|Biodynamics}}

Biodynamic agriculture is a method of [[organic farming]] originally developed by [[Rudolf Steiner]] that employs what proponents describe as "a [[holism|holistic]] understanding of agricultural processes".<ref name=OrgAg2>Florian Leiber, Nikolai Fuchs and Hartmut Spieß, "Biodynamic agriculture today", in Paul Kristiansen, Acram Taji, and John Reganold (2006), ''Organic Agriculture: A global perspective'', Collingwood, AU: CSIRO Publishing</ref>{{rp|145}} One of the first [[sustainable agriculture]] movements,<ref name=PaullJ>{{cite journal|last=Paull|first=John|title=Attending the First Organic Agriculture Course: Rudolf Steiner's Agriculture Course at Koberwitz, 1924 |journal=European Journal of Social Sciences' |year=2011 |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=64–70 |url=http://orgprints.org/18809/1/Paull2011KoberwitzEJSS.pdf}}</ref><ref name=Lotter>Lotter, D.W. 2003.[http://donlotter.net/lotter_organicag.pdf "Organic agriculture"] J. Sustainable Agriculture 21(4)</ref><ref>Richard Harwood, former C.S. Mott Chair for Sustainable Agriculture at Michigan State University, calls the biodynamic movement the "first organized and well-defined movement of growers and philosophies [in sustainable agriculture] (Harwood 1990; p.6).</ref>

===Bioinformatics===

{{main|Bioinformatics}}

Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary scientific field that develops methods for storing, retrieving, organizing and analyzing biological data. A major activity in bioinformatics is to develop software tools to generate useful biological knowledge.

===Biology===

{{main|Biology}} <!--Does Biology belong in this list at all? Should it not be the Overview or Introductory section?-->

Biology is the parent [[natural science]] of all the [[life]] sciences. It involves the study of all aspects of [[organism]]s, including their structure, function, growth, [[evolution]], distribution, and [[Taxonomy (biology)|taxonomy]],<ref name=aquarenagloss>Based on definition from: {{cite web |url=http://www.bio.txstate.edu/~wetlands/Glossary/glossary.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20040608113114/http://www.bio.txstate.edu/~wetlands/Glossary/glossary.html |archivedate=2004-06-08 |title=Aquarena Wetlands Project glossary of terms |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |publisher=Texas State University at San Marcos }}</ref> with many [[List of biology disciplines#Branches of biology|branches and subdisciplines]]. It recognizes the [[Cell (biology)|cell]] as the basic unit of life, [[genes]] as the basic unit of [[heredity]], and [[evolution]] as the engine that propels the synthesis and creation of new [[species]]. All organisms survive by consuming and transforming [[energy]] and by [[homeostasis|regulating]] their internal environment.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://community.weber.edu/sciencemuseum/pages/life_main.asp |title=Life Science, Weber State Museum of Natural Science |publisher=Community.weber.edu |accessdate=2013-10-02}}</ref>

===Biomaterials===

{{main|Biomaterials}}

A biomaterial is any matter, surface, or construct that interacts with biological systems. As a science, biomaterials is about fifty years old. The study of biomaterials is called biomaterials science. It has experienced steady and strong growth over its history, with many companies investing large amounts of money into the development of new products. Biomaterials science encompasses elements of [[medicine]], [[biology]], [[chemistry]], [[tissue engineering]] and [[materials science]].

===Biomechanics===

{{main|Biomechanics}}

Biomechanics is the study of the structure and function of biological systems such as [[human]]s, [[animal]]s, [[plant]]s, [[Organ (anatomy)|organs]], and [[Cell (biology)|cells]]<ref>R. McNeill Alexander (2005) ''[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4GXV66S-6&_user=10&_coverDate=08%2F23%2F2005&_rdoc=6&_fmt=high&_orig=browse&_srch=doc-info(%23toc%236243%232005%23999849983%23604671%23FLA%23display%23Volume)&_cdi=6243&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=27&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=a2e1364289e07dd87feb65f9dc4086c0 Mechanics of animal movement]'', [[Current Biology]] Volume 15, Issue 16, 23 August 2005, Pages R616-R619.</ref>

by means of the methods of [[mechanics]].<ref>

{{cite journal

| last1 = Hatze

| first1 = Herbert

| year = 1974

| title = The meaning of the term biomechanics

| url =

| journal = Journal of Biomechanics

| volume = 7

| issue =

| pages = 189–190 }}</ref>

===Biomedical science===

{{main|Biomedical science}}

Healthcare science, also known as biomedical science, is a set of [[applied science]]s applying portions of [[natural science]] or [[formal science]], or both, to develop knowledge, interventions, or technology of use in [[healthcare]] or [[public health]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/Consultations/Liveconsultations/DH_091137?IdcService=GET_FILE&dID=181510&Rendition=Web |title=The Future of the Healthcare Science Workforce. Modernising Scientific Careers: The Next Steps. |page=2 |accessdate=1 June 2011 |date=26 Nov 2008 }}</ref> Such disciplines as [[medical microbiology]], [[clinical virology]], [[clinical epidemiology]], [[genetic epidemiology]], and [[biomedical engineering]] are medical sciences. Explaining [[physiology|physiological]] mechanisms operating in [[pathology|pathological processes]], however, [[pathophysiology]] can be regarded as [[basic science]].

===Biomedicine===

{{main|Biomedicine}}

Biomedicine, or Medical biology, is a branch of [[medicine|medical science]] that applies biological and other [[natural science|natural-science]] principles to [[clinical practice]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.memidex.com/biomedicine+applies-biological-physiological |title=biomedicine (applies biological, physiological) - Memidex dictionary/thesaurus |work=memidex.com |date=2012-10-08 |accessdate=2012-10-20}}</ref>

Biomedicine is related to the ability of humans to cope with environmental stress. The branch especially applies to [[biology]] and [[physiology]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/biomedical|title=biomedicine - The Free Dictionary |year=2013|accessdate= 2013-05-15}}</ref>

Biomedicine also can relate to many other categories in [[health]] and biological related fields.

===Biomonitoring===

{{main|Biomonitoring}}

In [[analytical chemistry]], biomonitoring is the measurement of the body burden<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chemicalbodyburden.org/whatisbb.htm |title=What is body burden? |publisher=Chemicalbodyburden.org |date= |accessdate=9 February 2014}}</ref> of toxic [[chemical compound]]s, [[Chemical element|elements]], or their [[metabolite]]s, in biological substances.<ref name=CDC3rd>{{cite web

|url=http://www.clu-in.org/download/contaminantfocus/pcb/third-report.pdf

|title=Third National Report on Human Exposure to Environmental Chemicals

|format=PDF

|publisher=[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] – National Center for Environmental Health

|accessdate=9 August 2009

}}</ref><ref>{{cite web

|url=http://www.americanchemistry.com/s_acc/bin.asp?CID=257&DID=1584&DOC=FILE.PDF

|title=What is Biomonitoring?

|format=PDF

|publisher=[[American Chemistry Council]]

|accessdate=11 January 2009}}</ref> Often, these measurements are done in blood and urine.<ref name=Angerer07>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.ijheh.2007.01.024 |title=Human biomonitoring: State of the art |year=2007 |last1=Angerer |first1=Jürgen |last2=Ewers |first2=Ulrich |last3=Wilhelm |first3=Michael |journal=International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health |volume=210 |issue=3–4 |pages=201–28 |pmid=17376741}}</ref>

The two best established biomonitoring programs in representative samples of the general population are those of the United States and Germany, although population-based programs exist in a few other countries.<ref>Porta M, et al. Monitoring concentrations of persistent organic pollutants in the general population: the international experience. Environment International 2008; 34: 546–561.</ref> In 2001, the U.S. [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) began to publish its biennial ''National Report on Human Exposure to Environmental Chemicals'', which reports a statistically representative sample of the U.S. population.<ref name=CDC_about>{{cite web | title = About the Program | work = cdc.gov | publisher = Centers for Disease Control | date = 3 April 2008 | url = http://www.cdc.gov/biomonitoring/about.html | accessdate = 25 May 2009}}</ref> The [[Environmental Working Group]] has also conducted biomonitoring studies.<ref name=EWG>{{cite web |author= |title=About the Human Toxome Project |url=http://www.ewg.org/sites/humantoxome/about/ |work=Human Toxome Project |publisher=Environmental Working Group |date= |accessdate=30 September 2009}}</ref>

===Biophysics===

{{main|Biophysics}}

[[Image:Photosynthetic Reaction Center Drawing.png|thumb|right|upright|Photosynthetic reaction center.]]

Biophysics is an [[interdisciplinary]] [[science]] using methods of, and theories from, [[physics]] to study [[biology|biological]] systems.<ref>https://www.biophysics.org/Portals/1/PDFs/Career%20Center/Careers%20In%20Biophysics.pdf</ref> Biophysics spans all [[Structure#Biological structure|levels of biological organization]], from the molecular scale to whole organisms and ecosystems. Biophysical research shares significant overlap with [[biochemistry]], [[nanotechnology]], [[bioengineering]], [[agrophysics]], and [[systems biology]]. It has been suggested as a bridge between biology and physics.

===Biopolymers===

{{main|Biopolymer}}

'''Biopolymers''' are [[polymer]]s produced by living organisms; in other words, they are polymeric [[biomolecule]]s. Since they are [[polymer]]s, biopolymers contain [[monomeric]] units that are covalently bonded to form larger structures. There are three main classes of biopolymers, classified according to the monomeric units used and the structure of the biopolymer formed: [[polynucleotide]]s ([[RNA]] and [[DNA]]), which are long polymers composed of 13 or more [[nucleotide]] [[monomers]]; [[polypeptides]], which are short polymers of amino acids; and [[polysaccharides]], which are often linear bonded polymeric carbohydrate structures.<ref>Mohanty, A.K., et al., '''Natural Fibers, Biopolymers, and Biocomposites''' (CRC Press, 2005)</ref><ref>Chandra, R., and Rustgi, R., "Biodegradable Polymers", Progress in Polymer Science, Vol. 23, p. 1273 (1998)</ref><ref>Meyers, M.A., et al., "Biological Materials: Structure & Mechanical Properties", Progress in Materials Science, Vol. 53, p. 1 (2008)</ref><ref>Kumar, A., et al., "Smart Polymers: Physical Forms & Bioengineering Applications", Progress in Polymer Science, Vol. 32, p.1205 (2007)</ref>

===Biotechnology===

{{main|Biotechnology}}

Biotechnology is the use of living systems and organisms to develop or make useful products, or "any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use" (UN Convention on Biological Diversity, Art. 2).<ref>[http://www.cbd.int/convention/text/ Text of the CBD]. Cbd.int. Retrieved on 2013-03-20.</ref> Depending on the tools and applications, it often overlaps with the (related) fields of [[bioengineering]] and [[biomedical engineering]].

For thousands of years, humankind has used biotechnology in agriculture, food production, and medicine.<ref>[http://www.public.asu.edu/~langland/biotech-intro.html "Incorporating Biotechnology into the Classroom What is Biotechnology?", from the curricula of the 'Incorporating Biotechnology into the High School Classroom through Arizona State University's BioREACH PROGRAM', accessed on October 16, 2012]. Public.asu.edu. Retrieved on 2013-03-20.</ref> The term itself is largely believed to have been coined in 1919 by Hungarian engineer [[Károly Ereky]]. In the late 20th and early 21st century, biotechnology has expanded to include new and diverse sciences such as [[genomics]], [[recombinant gene]] technologies, applied [[immunology]], and development of pharmaceutical therapies and diagnostic tests.<ref>[http://www.public.asu.edu/~langland/biotech-intro.html ''Incorporating Biotechnology into the Classroom – What is Biotechnology?'', from Incorporating Biotechnology into the High School Classroom through Arizona State University's BioREACH PROGRAM, Arizona State University, Microbiology Department, retrieved October 16, 2012]. Public.asu.edu. Retrieved on 2013-03-20.</ref>

===Botany===

{{main|Botany}}

[[File:Venus Fly Trap Eating Compilation Scott's Revenge On The Caterpillars.ogv|thumb|right|upright|Plants move or grow in a particular direction in response to external stimuli. Here the [[Venus fly trap]], ''Dionaea muscipula'', shows dramatic touch sensitivity.]]

Botany is the science of [[plant]] life. It includes the study of fungi and [[algae]], studied by [[mycologist]]s and [[phycologist]]s respectively, as well as true plants. Botany originated as [[herbalism]] with the efforts of early humans to identify and grow edible, medicinal and poisonous plants, making it one of the oldest branches of science. Medieval [[physic garden]]s and later [[botanical garden]]s supported early work in [[plant taxonomy]]. Botany includes [[plant morphology]], [[cell growth|growth]], [[Plant reproduction|reproduction]], [[Plant biochemistry|biochemistry]] and [[metabolism|primary metabolism]], [[phytochemistry|chemical products]], [[Plant development|development]], [[plant pathology|diseases]], [[phylogenetics|evolutionary relationships]] and [[biological classification|classification]]. and more recently [[molecular genetics]] and [[epigenetics]]. Botanical research helps to develop [[staple foods]] and [[textile]]s, horticulture, agriculture and [[forestry]], [[plant propagation]], [[Plant breeding|breeding]] and [[genetic modification]], the synthesis of chemicals and raw materials for construction and energy production, [[environmental management]], and the maintenance of [[biodiversity]].{{cn|date=February 2014}}

===Cell biology===

{{main|Cell biology}}

Cell biology studies [[cell (biology)|cells]] – their [[physiology]], structure, [[organelles]], interactions, [[cell cycle|life cycle]], [[cell division|division]] and [[apoptosis|death]], both on a [[microscope|microscopic]] and [[molecule|molecular]] level. Research encompasses the diversity of single-celled organisms like [[bacteria]] and [[protozoa]], and specialized cells in multicellular [[organisms]] such as [[human]]s, [[plant]]s, and [[sponge]]s. Cell biology is fundamental to all [[biology|biological sciences]], especially [[molecular biology]] [[cancer research]], and [[developmental biology]].

===Cognitive neuroscience===

{{main|Cognitive neuroscience}}

Cognitive neuroscience is an academic field concerned with the scientific study of biological substrates underlying [[cognition]],<ref>Gazzaniga, Ivry and Mangun 2002, cf. title</ref> with a specific focus on the neural substrates of mental processes. It addresses the questions of how psychological/cognitive functions are produced by the brain. Cognitive neuroscience is a branch of both [[psychology]] and [[neuroscience]], overlapping with disciplines such as [[physiological psychology]], [[cognitive psychology]] and [[neuropsychology]].<ref name="Gazzaniga 2002, p. xv">Gazzaniga 2002, p. xv</ref> Cognitive neuroscience relies upon theories in [[cognitive science]] coupled with evidence from [[neuropsychology]], and [[computational model]]ing.<ref name="Gazzaniga 2002, p. xv"/>

Due to its multidisciplinary nature, cognitive neuroscientists may have various backgrounds. Other than the associated disciplines just mentioned, cognitive neuroscientists may have backgrounds in these disciplines: neurobiology, [[bioengineering]], [[psychiatry]], [[neurology]], [[physics]], [[computer science]], [[linguistics]], [[philosophy]] and [[mathematics]].

Methods employed in cognitive neuroscience include experimental paradigms from [[psychophysics]] and [[cognitive psychology]], [[functional neuroimaging]], [[electrophysiology]], [[cognitive genomics]] and [[behavioral genetics]]. Studies of patients with cognitive deficits due to brain [[lesion]]s constitute an important aspect of cognitive neuroscience (see [[neuropsychology]]). Theoretical approaches include [[computational neuroscience]] and [[cognitive psychology]].

===Computational neuroscience===

{{main|Computational neuroscience}}

Computational neuroscience is the study of [[brain function]] in terms of the [[information processing]] properties of the structures that make up the [[nervous system]].<ref>What is computational neuroscience? Patricia S. Churchland, Christof Koch, Terrence J. Sejnowski. in Computational Neuroscience pp.46-55. Edited by Eric L. Schwartz. 1993. MIT Press [http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?ttype=2&tid=7195]</ref> It is an interdisciplinary science that links the diverse fields of [[neuroscience]], [[cognitive science]], and [[cognitive psychology|psychology]] with [[electrical engineering]], [[computer science]], [[mathematics]], and [[physics]].

Computational neuroscience is distinct from psychological [[connectionism]] and from learning theories of disciplines such as [[machine learning]], [[neural networks]], and [[computational learning theory]] in that it emphasizes descriptions of functional and biologically realistic neurons (and neural systems) and their physiology and dynamics. These models capture the essential features of the biological system at multiple spatial-temporal scales, from membrane currents, proteins, and chemical coupling to [[neural oscillation|network oscillations]], columnar and topographic architecture, and learning and memory.

These computational models are used to frame hypotheses that can be directly tested by biological and/or psychological experiments.

===Conservation biology===

{{main|Conservation biology}}

Conservation biology is the scientific study of the nature and status of [[Earth]]'s [[biodiversity]] with the aim of protecting [[species]], their [[habitats]], and [[ecosystems]] from excessive rates of [[extinction]] and the erosion of biotic interactions.<ref name="SahneyBenton2008RecoveryFromProfoundExtinction">{{cite journal | url=http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/275/1636/759.full.pdf+html| author=Sahney, S. and Benton, M.J. | year=2008 | title=Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time | journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society: Biological | doi=10.1098/rspb.2007.1370 | volume = 275 | pages = 759–65|format=PDdfafvfgfdg Ashley is AwesomeF | pmid=18198148 | issue=1636 | pmc=2596898}}</ref><ref name=ConsBiol80>{{cite book |author=Wilcox, Bruce A.; Soulé, Michael E.; Soulé, Michael E. |title=Conservation biology: an evolutionary-ecological perspective |publisher=Sinauer Associates |location=Sunderland, Mass |year=1980 |isbn=0-87893-800-1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Soule ME |title=What is Conservation Biology? |journal=BioScience |volume=35 |issue=11 |pages=727–34 |year=1986 |url=http://www.michaelsoule.com/resource_files/85/85_resource_file1.pdf |doi=10.2307/1310054 |jstor=1310054 |publisher=American Institute of Biological Sciences |last2=Soule |first2=Michael E.}}</ref> It is an interdisciplinary subject drawing on natural and social sciences, and the practice of [[natural resource management]].<ref name="Soule86">{{cite book|last = Soule| first= Michael E. | title=Conservation Biology: The Science of Scarcity and Diversity| year = 1986 | publisher = Sinauer Associates| page = 584 | isbn=978-0-87893-795-0}}</ref><ref name="Hunter96">{{cite book |author=Hunter, Malcolm L. |title=Fundamentals of conservation biology |publisher=Blackwell Science |location=Oxford |year=1996 |isbn=0-86542-371-7 }}</ref><ref name="Groom06">{{cite book |author=Meffe, Gary K.; Martha J. Groom |title=Principles of conservation biology |publisher=Sinauer Associates |location=Sunderland, Mass |year=2006 |isbn=0-87893-518-5 |edition=3rd}}</ref><ref name="Dyke08">{{cite book|last = van Dyke| first=Fred | title=Conservation Biology: Foundations, Concepts, Applications, 2nd ed.| year = 2008 | publisher = Springer Verlag| page = 478 | isbn=978-1-4020-6890-4 }}</ref>

===Developmental biology===

{{main|Developmental biology}}

Developmental biology is the study of the process by which [[organisms]] grow and develop, and is closely related to [[Ontogeny]]. Modern developmental biology studies the genetic control of [[cell growth]], [[cellular differentiation|differentiation]] and [[morphogenesis]], which is the process that gives rise to [[tissue (biology)|tissues]], [[organ (anatomy)|organs]] and [[anatomy]], but also [[Regeneration (biology)|regeneration]] and [[biological aging|aging]].<ref name=WolpertAging>{{cite book | title=Principles of development| edition=1st| author=Wolpert L, Beddington R, Jessell T, Lawrence P, Meyerowitz E, Smith J| year=1998| page=437| publisher=Oxford university press| isbn=}}</ref>

===Ecology===

{{main|Ecology}}

[[File:Common clownfish.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Ecosystem]]s often contain complex relationships between organisms, such as the mutual [[symbiosis]] between [[clownfish]] and tropical [[sea anemones]].]]

Ecology is the [[Science|scientific]] study of interactions among organisms and their environment, such as the interactions [[organism]]s have with each other and with their abiotic [[environment (biophysical)|environment]]. Topics of interest to ecologists include the [[biodiversity|diversity]], distribution, amount ([[biomass]]), number ([[population]]) of organisms, as well as competition between them within and among [[ecosystems]]. Ecosystems are composed of dynamically interacting parts including [[organisms]], the [[Community (ecology)|communities]] they make up, and the non-living components of their environment. Ecosystem processes, such as [[primary production]], [[pedogenesis]], [[nutrient cycling]], and various [[niche construction]] activities, regulate the flux of energy and matter through an environment. These processes are sustained by organisms with specific life history traits. The varieties of [[species]], [[gene]]s, and [[ecosystem]]s is referred to as [[biodiversity]] and enhances certain [[ecosystem services]]. An understanding of how biodiversity affects ecological function is an important focus area in ecological studies. Ecologists seek to explain the [[Ecological succession|successional]] development of ecosystems, and the [[abundance (ecology)|abundance]] and distribution of organisms and biodiversity in the context of the [[environment (biophysical)|environment]]. This, along with the movement of materials and [[energy]] through living communities of organisms, with their life processes, interactions and [[adaptations]] to the environment.

Ecology is an [[interdisciplinary]] field that includes [[biology]] and [[earth science]]. [[Evolution]]ary concepts on adaptation and [[natural selection]] became cornerstones of modern [[Theoretical ecology|ecological theory]] in the late 19th century. As such, ecology is closely related to [[evolutionary biology]], [[genetics]], and [[ethology]]. Ecology is a human science as well. There are many practical applications of ecology in [[conservation biology]], wetland management, [[natural resource management]] ([[agroecology]], [[agriculture]], [[forestry]], [[agroforestry]], [[fisheries]]), city planning ([[urban ecology]]), [[community health]], [[Ecological economics|economics]], [[Basic science|basic]] and [[applied science]], and human social interaction ([[human ecology]]).

Organisms and resources compose [[ecosystem]]s which, in turn, maintain [[Biophysics|biophysical]] feedback mechanisms that moderate processes acting on living ([[Biotic component|biotic]]) and nonliving ([[abiotic]]) components of the planet. Ecosystems sustain life-supporting functions and produce [[natural capital]] like biomass production (food, fuel, fiber and medicine), the regulation of [[climate]], global [[biogeochemical cycles]], [[water filtration]], [[soil formation]], erosion control, flood protection and many other natural features of scientific, historical, economic, or intrinsic value.

===Environmental science===

{{main|Environmental science}}

Environmental science is a [[multidisciplinary]] [[academic field]] that integrates physical and biological sciences, (including but not limited to [[ecology]], [[physics]], [[chemistry]], [[zoology]], [[mineralogy]], [[oceanology]], [[limnology]], [[soil science]], [[geology]], [[atmospheric science]], and [[geography]]) to the study of the environment, and the solution of environmental problems.

===Ethology===

{{main|Ethology}}

Ethology is the scientific and objective study of animal behaviour, and is a sub-topic of [[zoology]]. The focus of ethology is on animal behaviour under natural conditions,<ref>{{cite web|title=Definition of ETHOLOGY|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ethology|publisher=Merriam-Webster|accessdate=7 February 2014|quote=2 : the scientific and objective study of animal behaviour especially under natural conditions }}</ref> as opposed to [[behaviourism]], which focuses on behavioural response studies in a [[laboratory]] setting.

===Evolutionary biology===

{{main|Evolutionary biology}}

Evolutionary biology is a sub-field of [[biology]] concerned with the study of the evolutionary processes that produced the diversity of life on Earth. Someone who studies evolutionary biology is known as an evolutionary biologist. Evolutionary biologists study the [[common descent|descent of species]], and the [[speciation|origin of new species]].

===Evolutionary genetics===

{{main|Evolutionary genetics}}

The modern evolutionary synthesis is a 20th-century union of ideas from several [[biology|biological]] specialties which provides a widely accepted account of [[evolution]]. It is also referred to as the ''new synthesis'', the ''modern synthesis'', the ''evolutionary synthesis'', ''millennium synthesis'' and the ''neo-Darwinian synthesis''.

The synthesis, produced between 1936 and 1947, reflects the consensus about how evolution proceeds.<ref>{{cite book |title= Science and Creationism: a view from the National Academy of Sciences |url=http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=6024&page=28 |format=php |accessdate= September 24, 2009 |edition=Second |year= 1999 |publisher=The National Academy of Sciences |location=Washington, DC |isbn=-0-309-06406-6 |page=28 |chapter=Appendix: Frequently Asked Questions |chapterurl=http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=6024&page=27#p200064869970027001 |quote=The scientific consensus around evolution is overwhelming. |ref=NAS }}</ref> The previous development of [[population genetics]], between 1918 and 1932, was a stimulus, as it showed that [[Mendelian inheritance|Mendelian genetics]] was consistent with [[natural selection]] and gradual evolution. The synthesis is still, to a large extent, the current [[paradigm]] in evolutionary biology.<ref>{{harvnb|Mayr|2002|p=270}}</ref>

The modern synthesis solved difficulties and confusions caused by the specialisation and poor communication between biologists in the early years of the 20th century. At its heart was the question of whether Mendelian genetics could be reconciled with gradual evolution by means of natural selection. A second issue was whether the broad-scale changes ([[macroevolution]]) seen by palaeontologists could be explained by changes seen in local populations ([[microevolution]]).

The synthesis included evidence from biologists, trained in genetics, who studied populations in the field and in the laboratory. These studies were crucial to evolutionary theory. The synthesis drew together ideas from several branches of biology which had become separated, particularly [[genetics]], [[Cell biology|cytology]], [[systematics]], [[botany]], [[Morphology (biology)|morphology]], [[ecology]] and [[paleontology]].

===Food science===

{{main|Food science}}

[[Food science]] is the [[applied science]] devoted to the study of [[food]]. Activities of food scientists include the development of new food products, design of processes to produce these foods, choice of packaging materials, [[shelf-life]] studies, study of the effects of food on the human body, sensory evaluation of products using [[survey panel|panels]] or potential consumers, as well as microbiological and chemical testing.<ref name=" Nestle teams up with Singapore for food science research">{{cite web | url=http://in.reuters.com/article/2014/01/22/nestle-singapore-idINL2N0KW0C720140122 | title=Nestle teams up with Singapore for food science research | work=[[Reuters]] | date=22 January 2014 | accessdate=9 February 2014 | author=Geller, Martinne}}</ref><ref name="Food science to fight obesity">{{cite web | url=http://www.euronews.com/2013/12/09/food-science-to-fight-obesity/ | title=Food science to fight obesity | work=[[Euronews]] | date=9 December 2013 | accessdate=9 February 2014}}</ref><ref name="Nothing Simple about Food Dating">{{cite web | url=http://www.consumeraffairs.com/news04/2009/08/expiration_dates.html | title=Nothing Simple about Food Dating, Expiration Dates or 'Use-By' Dates | work=ConsumerAffairs | date=31 August 2007 | accessdate=9 February 2014 | author=Wood, David}}</ref><ref name="A New Kind of Food Science IBM ">{{cite web | url=http://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2013/11/a-new-kind-of-food-science/ | title=A New Kind of Food Science: How IBM Is Using Big Data to Invent Creative Recipes | work=[[Wired (website)|Wired]] | date=16 November 2013 | accessdate=9 February 2014 | author=Bhatia, Atish}}</ref>

===Genetics===

{{main|Genetics}}

[[File:Sexlinked inheritance white.jpg|thumb|upright|Morgan's observation of [[Sex linkage|sex-linked inheritance]] of a mutation causing white eyes in ''[[Drosophila]]'' led him to the hypothesis that genes are located upon chromosomes.]]

Genetics, a discipline of [[biology]], is the [[science]] of [[gene]]s, [[heredity]], and [[genetic variation|variation]] in living [[organism]]s.<ref name=griffiths2000sect60>{{cite book |editor-first=Anthony J. F. |editor-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.60 |chapter=Genetics and the Organism: Introduction}}</ref><ref name=Hartl_and_Jones>Hartl D, Jones E (2005)

</ref>

Genetics is the process of trait inheritance from parents to offspring, including the [[molecular Genetics|molecular structure and function]] of genes, gene behavior in the context of a [[cell (biology)|cell]] or [[organism]] (e.g. [[dominance (genetics)|dominance]] and [[epigenetics]]), gene distribution, and variation and change in [[population genetics|populations]]. Given that genes are universal to living organisms, genetics can be applied to the study of all living systems, including [[bacteria]], [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, and [[human]]s. The observation that living things inherit traits from their parents has been used since prehistoric times to improve crop plants and animals through [[selective breeding]].<ref name="Publishing2009">{{cite book|author=DK Publishing|title=Science: The Definitive Visual Guide|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=sFiJFuzRVFQC&pg=PA362|year=2009|publisher=Penguin|isbn=978-0-7566-6490-9|page=362}}</ref> The modern science of genetics, seeking to understand this process, began with the work of [[Gregor Mendel]] in the mid-19th century.<ref name=Weiling>{{cite journal |pmid=1887835| doi=10.1002/ajmg.1320400103 |year=1991 |last1=Weiling |first1=F |title=Historical study: Johann Gregor Mendel 1822–1884. |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=1–25; discussion 26 |journal=American journal of medical genetics}}</ref>

Mendel observed that organisms inherit traits by way of [[countable set|discrete]] "units of inheritance". This term, still used today, is a somewhat ambiguous definition of a [[gene]]. A more modern working definition of a gene is a portion (or sequence) of DNA that codes for a known cellular function. This portion of DNA is variable, it may be small or large, have a few subregions or many subregions. The word "Gene" refers to portions of DNA that are required for a single cellular process or single function, more than the word refers to a single tangible item. A quick idiom that is often used (but not always true) is "one gene, one protein" meaning a singular gene codes for a singular protein type in a cell. Another analogy is that a "gene" is like a "sentence" and "nucleotides" are like "letters". A series of nucleotides can be put together without forming a gene (non-coding regions of DNA), like a string of letters can be put together without forming a sentence (babble). Nonetheless, all sentences must have letters, like all genes must have nucleotides.

The sequence of nucleotides in a gene is read and [[translation (genetics)|translated]] by a cell to produce a chain of [[amino acid]]s which in turn spontaneously folds into a [[protein]]. The order of amino acids in a protein corresponds to the order of nucleotides in the gene. This relationship between nucleotide sequence and amino acid sequence is known as the [[genetic code]]. The amino acids in a protein determine how it folds into its unique three-dimensional shape, a structure that is ultimately responsible for the proteins function. Proteins carry out many of the functions needed for cells to live. A change to the DNA in a gene can change a protein's amino acid sequence, thereby changing its shape and function, rendering the protein ineffective or even malignant (see: [[sickle cell anemia]]). When a gene change occurs, it is referred to as a [[mutation]].

Genetics acts in combination with an organism's environment and experiences to influence development and behavior. Genes may be activated or inactivated, as determined by a cell's or organism's intra- or extra-cellular environment. For example, while genes play a role in determining [[human height]], an individual's [[nutrition]] and [[health]] during childhood also have a large effect.

===Genomics===

{{main|Genomics}}

'''Genomics''' is a discipline in [[genetics]] that applies [[recombinant DNA]], [[DNA sequencing]] methods, and [[bioinformatics]] to sequence, assemble, and analyze the function and structure of [[genome]]s (the ''complete'' set of DNA within a single cell of an organism).<ref name='gov2010'>{{cite web

| last = National Human Genome Research Institute

| title = A Brief Guide to Genomics

| work = Genome.gov

| accessdate = 2011-12-03

| date = 2010-11-08

| url = http://www.genome.gov/19016904

}}</ref><ref name='klug2012'>{{Cite book

| edition = 10th

| publisher = Pearson Education

| isbn = 9780321724120

| title = Concepts of genetics

| location = San Francisco

| year = 2012

}}</ref> The field includes efforts to determine the entire [[DNA sequence]] of organisms and fine-scale [[genetic mapping]]. The field also includes studies of intragenomic phenomena such as [[heterosis]], [[epistasis]], [[pleiotropy]] and other interactions between [[Locus (genetics)|loci]] and [[allele]]s within the genome.<ref name='pevsner2009'>{{Cite book

| edition = 2nd

| publisher = Wiley-Blackwell

| isbn = 9780470085851

| last = Pevsner

| first = Jonathan

| title = Bioinformatics and functional genomics

| location = Hoboken, N.J

| year = 2009 }}</ref> In contrast, the investigation of the roles and functions of single genes is a primary focus of [[molecular biology]] or [[genetics]] and is a common topic of modern medical and biological research. Research of single genes does not fall into the definition of genomics unless the aim of this genetic, pathway, and functional information analysis is to elucidate its effect on, place in, and response to the entire genome's networks.<ref name="gov2010a">{{cite web

| last = National Human Genome Research Institute

| title = FAQ About Genetic and Genomic Science

| work = Genome.gov

| accessdate = 2011-12-03

| date = 2010-11-08

| url = http://www.genome.gov/19016904

}}</ref><ref name="culver2002">{{Cite encyclopedia

| publisher = Macmillan Reference USA

| isbn = 0028656067

| editors = Richard Robinson (ed.)

| last = Culver

| first = Kenneth W.

| coauthors = Mark A. Labow

| title = Genomics

| encyclopedia = Genetics

| series = Macmillan Science Library

| date = 2002-11-08

}}</ref>

===Immunogenetics===

{{main|Immunogenetics}}

Immunogenetics or immungenetics is the branch of [[medical research]] that explores the relationship between the [[immune system]] and [[genetics]].

Autoimmune diseases, such as type 1 diabetes, are complex genetic traits which result from defects in the immune system. Identification of genes defining the immune defects may identify new target genes for therapeutic approaches. Alternatively, genetic variations can also help to define the immunological pathway leading to disease.

===Immunology===

{{main|Immunology}}

Immunology is a branch of [[biomedical science|biomedical]] [[science]] that covers the study of all aspects of the [[immune system]] in all [[organism]]s.<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=imm.TOC&depth=2 Janeway's Immunobiology textbook] Searchable free online version at the [[National Center for Biotechnology Information]]</ref> It deals with the [[physiology|physiological]] functioning of the immune system in states of both health and diseases; malfunctions of the immune system in immunological disorders ([[autoimmune diseases]], [[hypersensitivity|hypersensitivities]], [[immune deficiency]], [[transplant rejection]]); the physical, chemical and physiological characteristics of the components of the immune system [[in vitro]], [[In situ#Biology and Biomedical Engineering|in situ]], and [[in vivo]]. Immunology has applications in several disciplines of science, and as such is further divided.

Even before the concept of [[immunity (medical)|immunity]] (from ''immunis'', [[Latin]] for "exempt") was developed, numerous early physicians characterized organs that would later prove to be part of the immune system. The key primary lymphoid organs of the immune system are the [[thymus]] and [[bone marrow]], and secondary lymphatic tissues such as [[spleen]], [[tonsil]]s, [[lymphatic system|lymph vessels]], [[lymph node]]s, [[adenoid]]s, and [[skin]] and liver. When health conditions warrant, immune system organs including the thymus, spleen, portions of bone marrow, lymph nodes and secondary lymphatic tissues can be [[surgery|surgically]] excised for examination while patients are still alive.

Many components of the immune system are actually [[cell (biology)|cellular]] in nature and not associated with any specific organ but rather are embedded or circulating in various [[tissue (anatomy)|tissues]] located throughout the body.

===Immunotherapy===

{{main|Immunotherapy}}

Immunotherapy is a medical term defined as the "[[Therapy|treatment]] of [[disease]] by inducing, enhancing, or suppressing an immune response".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/immunotherapies?qsrc=2446 |title=immunotherapies definition |work=Dictionary.com |accessdate=2009-06-02}}</ref> Immunotherapies designed to elicit or amplify an immune response are classified as activation immunotherapies, while immunotherapies that reduce or suppress are classified as [[Immunosuppression|suppression immunotherapies]].

===Kinesiology===

{{main|Kinesiology}}

Kinesiology, also known as human kinetics, is the scientific study of [[human movement]]. Kinesiology addresses physiological, mechanical, and psychological mechanisms. Applications of kinesiology to human health include: [[biomechanics]] and [[orthopedics]]; strength and conditioning; [[sport psychology]]; methods of rehabilitation, such as physical and occupational therapy; and sport and exercise.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://oka.on.ca/ |title=Welcome to the Ontario Kinesiology Association |publisher=Oka.on.ca |date= |accessdate=2009-07-25}}</ref> Individuals who have earned degrees in kinesiology can work in research, the fitness industry, clinical settings, and in industrial environments.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cka.ca/kinesiology.php |title=CKA - Canadian Kinesiology Alliance - Alliance Canadienne de Kinésiologie |publisher=Cka.ca |date= |accessdate=2009-07-25}}</ref> Studies of human and animal motion include measures from motion tracking systems, [[electrophysiology]] of muscle and brain activity, various methods for monitoring physiological function, and other behavioral and cognitive research techniques.<ref>Bodo Rosenhahn, Reinhard Klette and Dimitris Metaxas (eds.). Human Motion - Understanding, Modelling, Capture and Animation. Volume 36 in 'Computational Imaging and Vision', Springer, Dordrecht, 2007</ref><ref>Ahmed Elgammal, Bodo Rosenhahn, and Reinhard Klette (eds.) Human Motion - Understanding, Modelling, Capture and Animation. 2nd Workshop, in conjunction with ICCV 2007, Rio de Janeiro, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, LNCS 4814, Springer, Berlin, 2007</ref>

===Marine biology===

[[File:Maldivesfish2.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Coral reef]]s form complex marine ecosystems with tremendous [[biodiversity]].]]

{{main|Marine biology}}

Marine biology is the scientific study of organisms in the [[ocean]] or other [[Marine (ocean)|marine]] or [[brackish water|brackish]] bodies of water. Given that in [[biology]] many [[scientific classification|phyla]], families and [[genera]] have some species that live in the [[sea]] and others that live on land, marine biology classifies species based on the [[environment (biophysical)|environment]] rather than on [[taxonomy (biology)|taxonomy]]. Marine biology differs from [[ecology|marine ecology]] as marine ecology is focused on how organisms interact with each other and the environment, and [[biology]] is the study of the organisms themselves.

A large proportion of all [[life on Earth]] exists in the ocean. Exactly how large the proportion is unknown, since many ocean species are still to be discovered. The ocean is a complex three-dimensional world<ref>[http://www.marine-conservation.org/media/shining_sea/theme_oceanography.htm Oceanographic and Bathymetric Features] ''Marine Conservation Institute''. Uploaded 18 September 2013.</ref> covering about 71% of the Earth's surface. Because of its depth it contains about 300 times the habitable volume of the terrestrial habitats on Earth. The habitats studied in marine biology include everything from the tiny layers of surface water in which organisms and abiotic items may be trapped in [[surface tension]] between the ocean and atmosphere, to the depths of the [[oceanic trench]]es, sometimes 10,000 meters or more beneath the surface of the ocean. Specific habitats include [[coral reef]]s, [[kelp forest]]s, [[seagrass meadow]]s, the surrounds of [[seamount]]s and [[thermal vent]]s, [[tidepool]]s, muddy, sandy and rocky bottoms, and the open ocean ([[pelagic]]) zone, where solid objects are rare and the surface of the water is the only visible boundary. The organisms studied range from microscopic [[phytoplankton]] and [[zooplankton]] to huge [[cetaceans]] (whales) 30 meters (98 feet) in length.

===Medical devices===

{{main|Medical device}}

A medical device is an instrument, apparatus, implant, in vitro reagent, or similar or related article that is used to diagnose, prevent, or treat disease or other conditions, and does not achieve its purposes through chemical action within or on the body (which would make it a [[drug]]).<ref>Summarised from the FDA's definition as per http://www.fda.gov/medicaldevices/deviceregulationandguidance/overview/classifyyourdevice/ucm051512.htm</ref> Whereas ''medicinal products'' (also called ''pharmaceuticals'') achieve their principal action by pharmacological, metabolic or immunological means, ''medical devices'' act by other means like physical, mechanical, or thermal means.

Medical devices vary greatly in complexity and application. Examples range from simple devices such as [[tongue depressors]], [[medical thermometer]]s, and [[Medical gloves|disposable gloves]] to advanced devices such as computers which assist in the conduct of [[medical test]]ing, [[Implant (medicine)|implants]], and [[prostheses]]. The design of medical devices constitutes a major segment of the field of [[biomedical engineering]].

The global medical device market reached roughly 209 billion US Dollars in 2006.<ref>{{cite web | title = Market Report: Wt | publisher = [http://www.acmite.com Acmite Market Intelligence] | url = http://www.acmite.com/market-reports/medicals/world-medical-devices-market.html }}</ref>

===Medical imaging===

{{main|Medical imaging}}

[[File:Structural MRI animation.ogv|thumbnail|right|upright|[[Parasagittal]] [[MRI]] of the head, with [[aliasing]] artifacts (nose and forehead appear at the back of the head)]]

Medical imaging is the technique and process used to create [[image]]s of the [[human body]] (or parts and function thereof) for clinical purposes ([[medical procedure]]s seeking to reveal, [[medical diagnosis|diagnose]], or examine [[disease]]) or medical

science (including the study of normal [[anatomy]] and [[physiology]]). Although imaging of removed [[organ (anatomy)|organs]] and [[Tissue (biology)|tissues]] can be performed for medical reasons, such procedures are not usually referred to as medical imaging, but rather are a part of [[pathology]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Imaging|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/medical/imaging|work=Merriam-Webster|publisher=Merriam-Webster, Incorporated|accessdate=8 February 2014}}</ref> Examples of medical imaging include:<ref name=DImage>{{cite web|title=Diagnostic Imaging|url=http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/diagnosticimaging.html|work=[[National Institutes of Health]]|publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services|accessdate=8 February 2014}}</ref>

* [[X-rays]]

* [[CT scans]]

* [[Ultrasound]]

* [[MRI scan]]

===Medical Social Work===

{{main|Medical social work}}

Medical social work is a sub-discipline of [[social work]], also known as hospital social work. Medical social workers typically work in a hospital, skilled nursing facility or [[Hospice care|hospice]], have a graduate degree in the field, and work with patients and their families in need of psychosocial help. Medical social workers assess the psychosocial functioning of patients and families and intervene as necessary. Interventions may include connecting patients and families to necessary resources and supports in the community; providing psychotherapy, supportive counselling, or grief counselling; or helping a patient to expand and strengthen their network of social supports.

Medical social workers typically work on an interdisciplinary team with professionals of other disciplines (such as medicine, nursing, physical, occupational, speech and recreational therapy).

===Microbiology===

{{main|Microbiology}}

[[File:Agar plate with colonies.jpg|thumb|right|upright|An [[agar plate]] streaked with [[microorganism]]s]]

Microbiology is the study of [[microscopic]] [[organisms]], either [[unicellular]] (single cell), [[multicellular]] (cell colony), or [[acellular]] (lacking cells).<ref name=Brock>{{cite book | author = Madigan M, Martinko J (editors) | title = Brock Biology of Microorganisms | edition = 13th | publisher = Pearson Education | year = 2006 | isbn = 0-321-73551-X |page = 1096}}</ref> Microbiology encompasses numerous sub-disciplines including [[virology]], [[mycology]], [[parasitology]], and [[bacteriology]].

===Molecular biology===

{{main|Molecular biology}}

Molecular biology is the branch of biology that deals with the molecular basis of biological activity. This field overlaps with other areas of [[biology]] and [[chemistry]], particularly [[genetics]] and [[biochemistry]]. Molecular biology chiefly concerns itself with understanding the interactions between the various systems of a [[Cell (biology)|cell]], including the interactions between the different types of [[DNA]], [[RNA]] and [[protein biosynthesis]] as well as learning how these interactions are regulated.

===Neuroethology===

{{main|Neuroethology}}

Neuroethology is the evolutionary and comparative approach study of animal behavior and the understanding of an animal's nervous system.

<ref>Hoyle, G. (1984) The scope of Neuroethology. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences. '''7''':367-412.</ref>

===Neuroscience===

{{main|Neuroscience}}

[[File:Gray739.png|right|thumb|upright|Illustration from ''[[Gray's Anatomy]]'' (1918) of a lateral view of the [[human brain]], featuring the [[hippocampus]] among other neuroanatomical features]]

Neuroscience is a branch of biology that deals with the study of the [[nervous system]].<ref name="Medical Dictionary: Neuroscience ">{{cite web | url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/medlineplus/neuroscience | title=Medical Dictionary | work=[[Merriam-Webster]] | accessdate=7 February 2014}}</ref> Traditionally, neuroscience has been seen as a branch of [[biology]]. However, it is currently an [[interdisciplinary]] science that collaborates with other fields such as [[chemistry]], [[computer science]], [[engineering]], [[linguistics]], [[mathematics]], [[medicine]] and [[Allied health professions|allied disciplines]], [[philosophy]], [[physics]], and [[psychology]]. It also exerts influence on other fields, such as [[Educational neuroscience|neuroeducation]]<ref>Zull, J. (2002). The art of changing the brain: Enriching the practice of teaching by exploring the biology of learning. Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing, L.L.C.</ref> and [[neurolaw]].

===Oncology===

{{main|Oncology}}

Oncology is the study of medicine that deals with [[cancer]], including a person's diagnosis and therapy of cancer.<ref>{{cite web|title=NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms - oncology|url=http://www.cancer.gov/dictionary?cdrid=45434|work=Cancer.gov|publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services|accessdate=9 February 2014}}</ref>

===Optogenetics===

{{main|Optogenetics}}

Optogenetics is a [[Neuromodulation (medicine)|neuromodulation]] technique employed in [[neuroscience]] that uses a combination of techniques from [[optics]] and [[genetics]] to control and monitor the activities of individual [[neuron]]s in [[in vivo|living tissue]]—even within freely-moving animals—and to precisely measure the effects of those manipulations in real-time.<ref name="Deisseroth 2006">{{cite journal|doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3863-06.2006|title=Next-Generation Optical Technologies for Illuminating Genetically Targeted Brain Circuits|year=2006|last1=Deisseroth|first1=K.|last2=Feng|first2=G.|last3=Majewska|first3=A. K.|last4=Miesenbock|first4=G.|last5=Ting|first5=A.|last6=Schnitzer|first6=M. J.|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=26|issue=41|pages=10380–6|pmid=17035522|pmc=2820367}}</ref> The key reagents used in optogenetics are light-sensitive proteins. Spatially-precise neuronal control is achieved using optogenetic actuators like [[channelrhodopsin]], [[halorhodopsin]], and [[bacterial rhodopsins|archaerhodopsin]], while temporally-precise recordings can be made with the help of optogenetic sensors like Clomeleon, Mermaid, and SuperClomeleon.<ref>{{pmid|21056968}}</ref>

The earliest approaches were developed and applied in the lab of [[Gero Miesenböck]],<ref name="Zemelman 2002">{{pmid|11779476}}</ref><ref name="Lima 2005">{{pmid|15820685}}</ref> now Waynflete Professor of Physiology at the [[University of Oxford]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Gero Miesenböck's Official Website|url=http://www.cncb.ox.ac.uk/index.php/team28/group-leaders/78-the-team/70-gero-miesenboeck|accessdate=29 May 2013}}</ref> and Richard Kramer and Ehud Isacoff at the University of California, Berkeley; these methods conferred light sensitivity but were never reported to be useful by other laboratories due to the multiple components these approaches required. A distinct single-component approach involving microbial opsin genes introduced in 2005 turned out to be widely applied, as described below. Optogenetics is known for the high [[angular resolution|spatial]] and [[temporal resolution]] that it provides in altering the activity of specific types of neurons within defined brain areas to control a subject's behavior.

===Optometry===

{{main|Optometry}}

Optometry is a [[health profession|health care profession]] concerned with the health of the [[human eye|eyes]] and related structures, as well as [[Visual acuity|vision]], [[visual system]]s, and [[Visual perception|vision information processing]] in humans.

===Parasitology===

{{main|Parasitology}}

[[File:Black fly.jpg|right|thumb|upright|Adult [[black fly]] (''Simulium yahense'') with (''[[Onchocerca volvulus]]'') emerging from the insect's antenna. The parasite is responsible for the disease known as [[Onchocerciasis|river blindness]] in Africa.]]

'Parasitology is the study of [[parasite]]s, their [[host (biology)|hosts]], and the relationship between them. As a [[List of biology disciplines|biological discipline]], the scope of parasitology is not determined by the organism or environment in question, but by their way of life. This means it forms a synthesis of other disciplines, and draws on techniques from fields such as [[cell biology]], [[bioinformatics]], [[biochemistry]], [[molecular biology]], [[immunology]], [[genetics]], [[evolution]] and [[ecology]].

===Pathology===

{{main|Pathology}}

Pathology is the precise study and [[medical diagnosis|diagnosis]] of [[disease]]. ''[[Pathologization]]'', to pathologize, refers to the process of defining a condition or behavior as pathological, e.g. [[pathological gambling]]. Pathologies (or pathoses) is synonymous with diseases. The suffix "path" is used to indicate a state of disease, and may be used to indicate [[psychological]] (eg. [[psychopath]]) or physical disease (eg [[cardiomyopathy]]).<ref>{{cite web|title=Definition of -path in English|url=http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/--path?q=-path|work=Oxford English Dictionary|publisher=OED|accessdate=12 October 2013}}</ref> A [[physician]] practicing pathology is called a pathologist.

Pathology addresses four components of disease: cause/etiology, mechanisms of development (pathogenesis), structural alterations of cells (morphologic changes), and the consequences of changes (clinical manifestations).<ref>{{Cite book

| edition = 8th ed. /

| publisher = Saunders/Elsevier

| isbn = 978-1-4160-3121-5

| last = Robbins

| first = Stanley

| title = Robbins and Cotran pathologic basis of disease.

| location = Philadelphia

| year = 2010

}}</ref>

Pathology is further separated into divisions, based on either the system being studied (e.g. [[dermatopathology]]) or the focus of the examination (e.g. forensic pathology and determining the cause of death).

===Pharmacogenomics===

{{main|Pharmacogenomics}}

Pharmacogenomics (a portmanteau of [[pharmacology]] and [[genomics]]) is the technology that analyses how genetic makeup affects an individual's response to drugs.<ref>Ermak G., Modern Science & Future Medicine (second edition), 164 p., 2013</ref> It deals with the influence of [[genetics|genetic]] variation on drug response in patients by correlating [[gene expression]] or [[single-nucleotide polymorphism]]s with a drug's [[efficacy]] or [[toxicity]].<ref name="pmid20836007">{{cite journal | author = Wang L | title = Pharmacogenomics: a systems approach | journal = Wiley Interdiscip Rev Syst Biol Med | volume = 2 | issue = 1 | pages = 3–22 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20836007 | doi = 10.1002/wsbm.42 }}</ref>

===Pharmaceutical sciences===

{{main|Pharmaceutical sciences}}

The pharmaceutical sciences are a group of [[interdisciplinary]] areas of study concerned with the design, action, delivery, disposition, [[inorganic chemistry|inorganic]], [[physical chemistry|physical]], [[biochemistry|biochemical]] and [[analytical chemistry|analytical]] [[biology]] ([[anatomy]] and [[physiology]], [[biochemistry]], [[cell biology]], and [[molecular biology]]), [[epidemiology]], [[statistics]], [[chemometrics]], [[Applied mathematics|mathematics]], [[physics]], and [[chemical engineering]], and applies their principles to the study of drugs.

===Pharmacology===

{{main|Pharmacology}}

[[Image:Pharmacologyprism.jpg|thumb|upright|A variety of topics involved with [[pharmacology]], including [[neuropharmacology]], renal pharmacology, human [[metabolism]], intracellular metabolism, and intracellular regulation]]

Pharmacology is the branch of medicine and [[biology]] concerned with the study of [[drug]] action,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Vallance P, Smart TG |title=The future of pharmacology |journal=[[British Journal of Pharmacology]] |volume=147 Suppl 1 |issue= S1|pages=S304–7 |date=January 2006 |pmid=16402118 |pmc=1760753 |doi=10.1038/sj.bjp.0706454 |url=}}</ref> where a drug can be broadly defined as any man-made, natural, or endogenous (within the body) molecule which exerts a biochemical and/or physiological effect on the cell, tissue, organ, or organism. More specifically, it is the study of the interactions that occur between a living organism and chemicals that affect normal or abnormal biochemical function. If substances have [[medication|medicinal]] properties, they are considered [[Pharmaceutical drug|pharmaceuticals]].

===Physiology===

{{main|Physiology}}

Physiology is the scientific study of [[function (biology)|function]] in living systems.<ref name=Prosser>{{cite book |last1 = Prosser |first1 = C. Ladd |title = Comparative Animal Physiology, Environmental and Metabolic Animal Physiology |edition=4th |publisher = Wiley-Liss |location = Hoboken, NJ |year = 1991 |isbn = 0-471-85767-X |pages=1–12}}</ref> This includes how organisms, organ systems, [[Organ (anatomy)|organs]], [[cell (biology)|cells]], and bio-molecules carry out the chemical or physical functions that exist in a living system. The highest honor awarded in physiology is the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]], awarded since 1901 by the [[Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]].

===Population dynamics===

{{main|Population dynamics}}

Population dynamics is the study of short-term and long-term changes in the size and age composition of [[population]]s, and the [[biology|biological]] and [[environment (biophysical)|environmental]] processes influencing those changes. Population dynamics deals with the way populations are affected by [[birth rate|birth]] and [[death rate]]s, and by [[immigration]] and [[emigration]], and studies topics such as [[ageing population]]s or [[population decline]].

===Proteomics===

{{main|Proteomics}}

Proteomics is the large-scale study of [[protein]]s, particularly their [[protein structure|structures]] and [[functional genomics|functions]].<ref name="pmid9740045">{{cite journal |author=Anderson NL, Anderson NG |title=Proteome and proteomics: new technologies, new concepts, and new words |journal=Electrophoresis |volume=19 |issue=11 |pages=1853–61 |year=1998 |pmid=9740045 |doi=10.1002/elps.1150191103}}</ref><ref name="pmid10189717">{{cite journal |author=Blackstock WP, Weir MP |title=Proteomics: quantitative and physical mapping of cellular proteins |journal=Trends Biotechnol. |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=121–7 |year=1999 |pmid=10189717| doi = 10.1016/S0167-7799(98)01245-1}}</ref>

Proteins are vital parts of living organisms, as they are the main components of the physiological [[metabolic pathways]] of [[biological cell|cells]]. The [[proteome]] is the entire set of proteins,<ref name="wilkins1996">{{cite journal |author=Marc R. Wilkins, Christian Pasquali, Ron D. Appel, Keli Ou, Olivier Golaz, Jean-Charles Sanchez, Jun X. Yan, Andrew. A. Gooley, Graham Hughes, Ian Humphery-Smith, Keith L. Williams & Denis F. Hochstrasser|title=From Proteins to Proteomes: Large Scale Protein Identification by Two-Dimensional Electrophoresis and Arnino Acid Analysis|journal=Nature Biotechnology |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=61–65 |year=1996 |pmid=9636313 |doi=10.1038/nbt0196-61}}</ref> produced or modified by an organism or system. This varies with time and distinct requirements, or stresses, that a cell or organism undergoes.

===Psychiatric social work===

<!--{{main|Psychiatric social work}}-->

Psychiatric social work is one of the oldest [[mental health]] professions.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Silverman|first=Wade H.|title=The evolving mental health professions: Psychiatric social work, clinical psychology, psychiatry, and psychiatric nursing|journal=The journal of mental health administration|date=1 September 1985|volume=12|issue=2|pages=28–31|issn=0092-8623}}</ref> Workers provide mental health services to the community, including [[psychotherapy]] and diagnosing [[mental illness]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Psychiatric Social Workers and How to Become One|url=http://www.socialworklicensure.org/types-of-social-workers/psychiatric-social-worker.html|publisher=SocialWorkLicensure.org|accessdate=9 February 2014}}</ref>

===Psychology===

{{main|Psychology}}

Psychology is an academic and [[Applied science|applied discipline]] that involves the [[scientific study]] of [[mental functions]] and [[behavior]]s.<ref name=APA>{{cite web|title=How does the APA define "psychology"? | url = http://www.apa.org/support/about/apa/psychology.aspx#answer | accessdate = 15 November 2011}}</ref><ref name=APA2>{{cite web|title=Definition of "Psychology (APA's Index Page)" | url = http://www.apa.org/about/index.aspx | accessdate = 20 December 2011}}</ref> Psychology has the immediate goal of understanding individuals and groups by both establishing general principles and researching specific cases,<ref name="Fernald">Fernald LD (2008). [http://books.google.com/books?id=Q7p-J4-SWuQC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false ''Psychology: Six perspectives''] (pp. 12–15). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.</ref><ref name="Psychology">Hockenbury & Hockenbury. Psychology. Worth Publishers, 2010.</ref> and by many accounts it ultimately aims to benefit society.<ref name="O'Neil">O'Neil, H.F.; cited in Coon, D.; Mitterer, J.O. (2008). [http://books.google.com/books?id=vw20LEaJe10C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false ''Introduction to psychology: Gateways to mind and behavior''] (12th ed., pp. 15–16). Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning.</ref><ref name="APA_mission">"The mission of the APA [American Psychological Association] is to advance the creation, communication and application of psychological knowledge to benefit society and improve people’s lives"; APA (2010). [http://www.apa.org/about/index.aspx ''About APA''.] Retrieved 20 October 2010.</ref> In this field, a professional [[Wikt:practitioner|practitioner]] or researcher is called a [[psychologist]] and can be classified as a [[Social science|social]], [[Behavioural sciences|behavioral]], or [[Cognitive science|cognitive scientist]].

===Sports science===

{{main|Sports science}}

Sport science is a discipline that studies the application of treatment and prevention of injuries related to sports medicine.

The study of sport science traditionally incorporates areas of [[physiology]], [[psychology]], and [[biomechanics]] but also includes other topics such as [[nutrition]] and [[diet (nutrition)|diet]],

Sport scientists and performance consultants are growing in demand and employment numbers, with the ever-increasing focus within the sporting world on achieving the best results possible. Through the study of science and sport, researchers have developed a greater understanding on how the human body reacts to exercise, training, different environments and many other stimuli.

===Structural biology===

{{main|Structural biology}}

Structural biology is a branch of [[molecular biology]], [[biochemistry]], and [[biophysics]] concerned with the molecular structure of biological [[macromolecule]]s, especially [[protein]]s and [[nucleic acid]]s, how they acquire the structures they have, and how alterations in their structures affect their function. This subject is of great interest to biologists because macromolecules carry out most of the functions of [[cell (biology)|cells]], and because it is only by coiling into specific three-dimensional shapes that they are able to perform these functions.

[[Biomolecule]]s are too small to see in detail even with the most advanced light [[microscope]]s. The methods that structural biologists use to determine their structures generally involve measurements on vast numbers of identical molecules at the same time. Another approach that structural biologists take to understanding structure is [[bioinformatics]] to look for patterns among the diverse [[DNA sequence|sequences]] that give rise to particular shapes.

===Systems biology===

{{main|Systems biology}}

Systems biology is a [[biology]]-based inter-disciplinary field of study that focuses on complex interactions within [[biological system]]s, using a more holistic perspective ([[holism]] instead of the more traditional [[reductionist|reductionism]]) approach to biological and [[biomedical research]]. Particularly from year 2000 onwards, the concept has been used widely in the [[biosciences]] in a variety of contexts. One of the outreaching aims of systems biology is to model and discover [[emergent property|emergent properties]], properties of [[cell (biology)|cells]], [[tissue (biology)|tissues]] and [[organism]]s functioning as a [[system]] whose theoretical description is only possible using techniques which fall under the remit of systems biology. These typically involve [[metabolic networks]] or [[cell signaling]] networks.<ref name="pmid21570668">{{cite journal |author=Bu Z, Callaway DJ |title=Proteins MOVE! Protein dynamics and long-range allostery in cell signaling |journal=Advances in Protein Chemistry and Structural Biology |volume=83 |issue= |pages=163–221 |year=2011 |pmid=21570668 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-381262-9.00005-7 |url= |series=Advances in Protein Chemistry and Structural Biology |isbn=978-0-123-81262-9}}</ref>

===Zoology===

{{main|Zoology}}

Zoology is the branch of [[biology]] that relates to the animal kingdom, including the structure, [[embryology]], [[evolution]], [[Biological classification|classification]], [[Ethology|habits]], and distribution of all [[animal]]s, both living and [[extinction|extinct]]. Sub-disciplines include Zoography, [[Comparative anatomy]], [[Animal physiology]], [[Behavioral ecology]], [[Ethology]], Invertebrate Zoology, Vertebrate Zoology and Comparative Zoology. Taxonomically oriented disciplines such as [[mammalogy]], [[herpetology]], [[ornithology]] and [[entomology]] identify and classify [[species]] and study aspects specific to those groups.

* [[Federation of European Biochemical Societies]] (FEBS)

* [[European Molecular Biology Organization]] (EMBO)

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== References ==

{{Reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==

* {{cite book|last=Magner|first=Lois N.|title=A history of the life sciences|year=2002|publisher=M. Dekker|location=New York|isbn=0824708245|edition=3rd ed., rev. and expanded.}}

==External links==

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