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→‎Biological properties: Updated to "Nutrient Transport" as biological properties information was added to other sections. Part of OSU project content
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The Kuroshio Current is a nutrient stream and is ranked as a moderately high productivity ecosystem with [[primary production]] of {{convert|150|to|300|g|oz|0}} of carbon per square meter per year based on [[SeaWiFS]] global primary productivity estimates. The coastal areas are highly productive and the maximum [[chlorophyll]] value is found around {{convert|100|m|ft}} depth.<ref name="Terazaki3">Terazaki, Makoto (1989) "Recent Large-Scale Changes in the Biomass of the Kuroshio Current Ecosystem" in Kenneth Sherman and Lewis M. Alexander (eds.), Biomass Yields and Geography of Large Marine Ecosystems (Boulder: Westview) AAAS Selected Symposium 111, pp.37-65. {{ISBN|0-8133-7844-3}}</ref> The nutrient rich water in the Kuroshio Current is surrounded by ambient water of the same density with lower relative nutrient levels. The downstream of the Kuroshio Current receives large amounts of nutrients at rates of 100-280 kmol N*s-1.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Guo|first=X. Y.|last2=Zhu|first2=X.-H.|last3=Long|first3=Y.|last4=Huang|first4=D. J.|date=2013-10-10|title=Spatial variations in the Kuroshio nutrient transport from the East China Sea to south of Japan|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bg-10-6403-2013|journal=Biogeosciences|volume=10|issue=10|pages=6403–6417|doi=10.5194/bg-10-6403-2013|issn=1726-4189}}</ref> Nutrient injections from deeper layers into surface sunlit laters are found where the Kuroshio Current flows over shallow areas and seamounts. These are in the [[Okinawa Trough]] and the Tokara Strait. <ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Nagai|first=Takeyoshi|last2=Durán|first2=Gloria Silvana|last3=Otero|first3=Diego André|last4=Mori|first4=Yasutaka|last5=Yoshie|first5=Naoki|last6=Ohgi|first6=Kazuki|last7=Hasegawa|first7=Daisuke|last8=Nishina|first8=Ayako|last9=Kobari|first9=Toru|date=2019|title=How the Kuroshio Current Delivers Nutrients to Sunlit Layers on the Continental Shelves With Aid of Near-Inertial Waves and Turbulence|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2019GL082680|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|language=en|volume=46|issue=12|pages=6726–6735|doi=10.1029/2019GL082680|issn=1944-8007}}</ref> The Tokara Strait has high cyclonic activity where the Kuroshio Current passes through. This in combination with the [[Coriolis Effect|Coriolis effect]] causes intense mixing along the continental shelf. <ref name=":1" /> This upwelling and nutrient injection into surface layers is essential for primary production because these vital nutrients would otherwise be inaccessible to phytoplankton which need to remain in upper layers where sunlight is available for them to perform [[photosynthesis]]. The constant transport of nutrient rich waters to regions with high levels of light therefore supports increased photosynthesis. This photosynthesis then allows for primary producer growth, helping to support the rest of the ecosystem.
The Kuroshio Current is a nutrient stream and is ranked as a moderately high productivity ecosystem with [[primary production]] of {{convert|150|to|300|g|oz|0}} of carbon per square meter per year based on [[SeaWiFS]] global primary productivity estimates. The coastal areas are highly productive and the maximum [[chlorophyll]] value is found around {{convert|100|m|ft}} depth.<ref name="Terazaki3">Terazaki, Makoto (1989) "Recent Large-Scale Changes in the Biomass of the Kuroshio Current Ecosystem" in Kenneth Sherman and Lewis M. Alexander (eds.), Biomass Yields and Geography of Large Marine Ecosystems (Boulder: Westview) AAAS Selected Symposium 111, pp.37-65. {{ISBN|0-8133-7844-3}}</ref> The nutrient rich water in the Kuroshio Current is surrounded by ambient water of the same density with lower relative nutrient levels. The downstream of the Kuroshio Current receives large amounts of nutrients at rates of 100-280 kmol N*s-1.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Guo|first=X. Y.|last2=Zhu|first2=X.-H.|last3=Long|first3=Y.|last4=Huang|first4=D. J.|date=2013-10-10|title=Spatial variations in the Kuroshio nutrient transport from the East China Sea to south of Japan|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bg-10-6403-2013|journal=Biogeosciences|volume=10|issue=10|pages=6403–6417|doi=10.5194/bg-10-6403-2013|issn=1726-4189}}</ref> Nutrient injections from deeper layers into surface sunlit laters are found where the Kuroshio Current flows over shallow areas and seamounts. These are in the [[Okinawa Trough]] and the Tokara Strait. <ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Nagai|first=Takeyoshi|last2=Durán|first2=Gloria Silvana|last3=Otero|first3=Diego André|last4=Mori|first4=Yasutaka|last5=Yoshie|first5=Naoki|last6=Ohgi|first6=Kazuki|last7=Hasegawa|first7=Daisuke|last8=Nishina|first8=Ayako|last9=Kobari|first9=Toru|date=2019|title=How the Kuroshio Current Delivers Nutrients to Sunlit Layers on the Continental Shelves With Aid of Near-Inertial Waves and Turbulence|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2019GL082680|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|language=en|volume=46|issue=12|pages=6726–6735|doi=10.1029/2019GL082680|issn=1944-8007}}</ref> The Tokara Strait has high cyclonic activity where the Kuroshio Current passes through. This in combination with the [[Coriolis Effect|Coriolis effect]] causes intense mixing along the continental shelf. <ref name=":1" /> This upwelling and nutrient injection into surface layers is essential for primary production because these vital nutrients would otherwise be inaccessible to phytoplankton which need to remain in upper layers where sunlight is available for them to perform [[photosynthesis]]. The constant transport of nutrient rich waters to regions with high levels of light therefore supports increased photosynthesis. This photosynthesis then allows for primary producer growth, helping to support the rest of the ecosystem.


==Production==
==Marine Life==
[[File:Spring Bloom Colors the Pacific Near Hokkaido.jpg|thumb|The [[Oyashio Current]] colliding with the Kuroshio Current near [[Hokkaido]]. When two currents collide, they create [[Eddy (fluid dynamics)|eddies]]. [[Phytoplankton]] growing in the surface waters become concentrated along the boundaries of these eddies, tracing out the motions of the water.]]
[[File:Spring Bloom Colors the Pacific Near Hokkaido.jpg|thumb|The [[Oyashio Current]] colliding with the Kuroshio Current near [[Hokkaido]]. When two currents collide, they create [[Eddy (fluid dynamics)|eddies]]. [[Phytoplankton]] growing in the surface waters become concentrated along the boundaries of these eddies, tracing out the motions of the water.|334x334px]]


===Impact of eddies===
===Biodiversity===
Understanding the biodiversity of an ecosystem is important in determining the health of a region and can be an indicator for changes in the environment. The Kuroshio Current is a [[biodiversity hotspot]], meaning the waters circulating through the region are highly fertile and are host to many different species, yet many of its resident organisms are at risk of becoming endangered or are already at the brink of extinction as a result of local and/or global human activity. Many of these threatened or endangered species are at risk because of overfishing and overharvesting.<ref name=":3">Aldea, K. Q., Morales, M. I., Arajo, A. E., & Masagca, J. T. (2015). Biodiversity in the Kuroshio Region: Challenges and Trends in the Upstream.</ref>
The Kuroshio is a warm current—{{convert|24|C|F}} with an annual average sea-surface temperature of about {{convert|100|km|mi}} wide and produces frequent small to meso-scale eddies. The Kuroshio Current is ranked as a moderately high productivity ecosystem—with [[primary production]] of {{convert|150|to|300|g|oz|0}}—of carbon per square meter per year—based on [[SeaWiFS]] global primary productivity estimates. The coastal areas are highly productive and the maximum [[chlorophyll]] value is found around {{convert|100|m|ft}} depth.<ref name="Terazaki">Terazaki, Makoto (1989) "Recent Large-Scale Changes in the Biomass of the Kuroshio Current Ecosystem" in Kenneth Sherman and Lewis M. Alexander (eds.), Biomass Yields and Geography of Large Marine Ecosystems (Boulder: Westview) AAAS Selected Symposium 111, pp.37-65. {{ISBN|0-8133-7844-3}}</ref>


=== <u>Invertebrates</u> ===
There are indications that eddies contribute to the preservation and survival of fish larvae transported by the Kuroshio.<ref name="belkin">Belkin, I., [http://www.lme.noaa.gov/LMEWeb/LME_Report/lme_49.pdf "Kuroshio Current: LME #49"]</ref> [[Plankton]] biomass fluctuates yearly and is typically highest <s>in the eddy area of the Kuroshio's edge.</s> Warm-core rings are not known for having high productivity. However, the biology of the warm-core rings from the Kuroshio Current show results of productivity equally distributed throughout for a couple of reasons. <s>One is upwelling at the periphery; the other is the</s> [[convection|convective mixing]] caused by the cooling of surface water as the ring moves north of the current. The [[thermostad]] is the deep [[mixed layer]] that has discrete boundaries and uniform temperature. Within this layer, nutrient-rich water is brought to the surface, which generates a burst of primary production. Given that the water in the core of a ring has a different temperature regime than the shelf waters, there are times when a warm-core ring is undergoing its [[spring bloom]] while the surrounding shelf waters are not.<ref name="mann">Mann, K.H. and J.R.N. Lazier. (2006). ''Dynamics of Marine Ecosystems''. Blackwell Scientific Publications, 2nd Edition</ref>


==== Foraminifera ====
There are many complex interactions with the [[warm core ring|warm-core ring]] and thus lifetime productivity is not very different from the surrounding shelf water. A study in 1998<ref name="mann" /> found that the primary productivity within a warm-core ring was almost the same as in the cold jet outside it, with evidence of upwelling of nutrients within the ring. In addition, there was discovery of dense populations of [[phytoplankton]] at the nutricline in a ring, presumably supported by upward mixing of nutrients.<ref name="mann" /> Furthermore, there have been [[Acoustics|acoustic]] studies in the warm-core ring, which showed intense sound scattering from [[zooplankton]] and fish populations in the ring and very sparse acoustic signals outside of it.
The Kuroshio Current intrusion redistributive impacts are seen with [[foraminifera]] species G. ruber and P. obliquiloculate. The distribution of these species in comparison to their standard dwelling depths demonstrates the redistributing power of the Kuroshio Current intrusion<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Gallagher|first=Stephen J.|last2=Kitamura|first2=Akihisa|last3=Iryu|first3=Yasufumi|last4=Itaki|first4=Takuya|last5=Koizumi|first5=Itaru|last6=Hoiles|first6=Peter W.|date=2015-06-27|title=The Pliocene to recent history of the Kuroshio and Tsushima Currents: a multi-proxy approach|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s40645-015-0045-6|journal=Progress in Earth and Planetary Science|volume=2|issue=1|pages=17|doi=10.1186/s40645-015-0045-6|issn=2197-4284}}</ref>. G. ruber is normally a surface dweller and was found at depths of 1000 meters along the Kuroshio Current. P. obliquiloculate which normally resides between 25 and 100 m, was found deep in the abyssal basin (>1000m)<ref name=":5" />.


==== Phytoplankton ====
[[Copepods]] have been used as indicator-species of water masses. It has been suggested that copepods have been transported from the Kuroshio Current into southwest Taiwan through the [[Luzon Strait]].<ref name="hwang">Hwang, J. (2007). "Instrusions of the Kuroshio Current in the northern South China Sea affect copepod assemblages of the Luzon Strait." ''Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology'' 352</ref> The Kuroshio intrusion through the Luzon Strait and further into the [[South China Sea]] may explain why copepods show a very high diversity in adjacent waters of the intrusion areas. <s>The Kuroshio Current intrusion has a major influence on ''C. sinicus'' and ''E. concinna'', which are two copepod species with higher index values for winter and originate from the East China Sea</s>. During the southwestern [[monsoon]], the South China Sea Surface Current moves northward during the summer toward the Kuroshio Current. As a result of this water circulation, the zooplankton communities in the boundary waters are unique and diverse.<ref name="hwang" />
[[Phytoplankton]], like in most [[Photic zone|epipelagic]] and [[Mesopelagic zone|mesopelagic]] systems, are the primary source of biological energy for the Kuroshio Current. Warm sea surface temperatures and low turbidity in the region lead to clearer waters which allows for deeper penetration of sunlight and an extension of the epipelagic zone. These particular characteristics correspond well with the requirements of two specific [[cyanobacteria]]: [[Prochlorococcus]] and [[Synechococcus]]<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Chung|first=Chih-Ching|last2=Chang|first2=Jeng|last3=Gong|first3=Gwo-Ching|last4=Hsu|first4=Shih-Chieh|last5=Chiang|first5=Kuo-Ping|last6=Liao|first6=Chia-Wen|date=2011-08-01|title=Effects of Asian Dust Storms on Synechococcus Populations in the Subtropical Kuroshio Current|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10126-010-9336-5|journal=Marine Biotechnology|language=en|volume=13|issue=4|pages=751–763|doi=10.1007/s10126-010-9336-5|issn=1436-2236}}</ref>. Prochlorococcus is in fact the dominating species of picophytoplankton within the Kuroshio Current and these two species working together are speculated to be responsible for as much as half of the fixation of CO2 in the entire Kuroshio Current photic zone<ref name=":7" />. Further, there are substantial dust deposition events in these regions due to Asian Dust Storms from the Saharan desert<ref name=":7" />. These depositions of phosphate and trace metals influence growth in both Prochlorococcus and Synechococcus as well as in [[Diatom|diatoms]]<ref name=":7" />.


Diatoms and [[Trichodesmium]] (a nitrogen fixing cyanobacterium genus, present in the surface waters of the Kuroshio Current) are also speculated to play an important role in the redistribution of carbon and nitrogen out of the euphotic zone in this region which is caused by the upwelling and subsequent transport of nitrate to surface waters<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lee Chen|first=Yl|last2=Tuo|first2=Sh|last3=Chen|first3=Hy|date=2011-01-17|title=Co-occurrence and transfer of fixed nitrogen from Trichodesmium spp. to diatoms in the low-latitude Kuroshio Current in the NW Pacific|url=http://www.int-res.com/abstracts/meps/v421/p25-38/|journal=Marine Ecology Progress Series|language=en|volume=421|pages=25–38|doi=10.3354/meps08908|issn=0171-8630}}</ref>.
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===Fish===
The biomass of fish populations depends on the biomass of lower [[trophic level]]s, primary production and on oceanic and atmospheric conditions.<ref name="belkin" /> In the Kuroshio-Oyashio region, the fish catches depend on oceanographic conditions, such as the Oyashio's southward intrusion and the Kuroshio's large [[meander]] south of Honshu. The [[Oyashio Current]] contains [[subarctic]] water that is much colder and fresher than the resident water east of Honshu. Thus, the fish intrusion affects presence, biomass, and catch of species such as [[pollock]], [[sardine]], and [[anchovy]]. When the Oyashio is well developed and protrudes southward, the cold waters are favorable for capturing sardines. The Kuroshio large meander development correlates with sardine availability for catch due to the proximity of the Kuroshio meander to the southern spawning grounds of sardine.<ref name="belkin" />


At least ten genera of seaweed reside in waters in and around the Kuroshio Current<ref name=":33">Aldea, K. Q., Morales, M. I., Arajo, A. E., & Masagca, J. T. (2015). Biodiversity in the Kuroshio Region: Challenges and Trends in the Upstream.</ref>. [[Caulerpa]], is a [[green algae]] that grows densely near shore on the periphery of the Kuroshio Current while [[Brown algae|brown]] and [[red algae]] also flourish adjacent the current, and like other photosynthesizing organisms, benefit from the nutrient transport and low turbidity of the region<ref name=":33" />.
===Squid===

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The [[Japanese flying squid]] ''(Todarodes pacificus)'' has three stocks that breed in winter, summer, and autumn. <s>The winter spawning group is associated with the Kuroshio Current. After spawning in January to April in the [[East China Sea]], the larvae and juveniles travel north with the Kuroshio Current.</s> They are turned inshore and are caught between the islands of [[Honshu]] and [[Hokkaido]] during the summer. The summer spawning is in another part of the East China Sea, from which the larvae are entrained into the [[Tsushima Strait|Tsushima current]] that flows north between the islands of Japan and the mainland. Afterward, the current meets a southward flowing cold coastal current, the Liman Current, and the summer-spawned squid are fished along the boundary between the two.<ref name="mann" /> This illustrates the use of these [[western boundary currents]] as a rapid transport that enable the eggs and larvae to develop during winter in warm water, while the adults travel with minimum energy expenditure to exploit the rich northern feeding grounds.<ref name="mann" /> Studies have reported that annual catches in Japan have gradually increased since the late 1980s and it has been proposed that changing environmental conditions have caused the autumn and winter spawning areas in the Tsushima Strait and near the [[Goto Islands]] to overlap.<ref name="sakurai">Sakurai, H., (2007). "An overview of the Oyashio ecosystem." ''Deep-Sea Research Part II'' 54</ref> In addition, winter spawning sites over the [[continental shelf]] and slope in the East China Sea are expanding.<ref name="mann" />
====Zooplankton====
An increase in [[zooplankton]] biomass occurs in the significantly lower water temperatures of the upwelling sites within the Kuroshio Current due to increased NO3-N concentrations, protein and lipid content that this particular upwelling event surfaces<ref>{{Cite web|title=Airiti Library|url=https://www.airitilibrary.com/Publication/alDetailedMesh?docid=10170839-199209-3-3-321-334-a.|access-date=2021-11-29|website=www.airitilibrary.com}}</ref>. It has been suggested that copepods have been transported from the Kuroshio Current into southwest Taiwan through the [[Luzon Strait]]. The [[Kuroshio Current Intrusion|Kuroshio Current intrusion]] through the Luzon Strait, and further into the [[South China Sea]], may explain why copepods show such a high diversity in adjacent waters of the intrusion areas<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lo|first=Wen-Tseng|last2=Dahms|first2=Hans-Uwe|last3=Hwang|first3=Jiang-Shiou|date=2014-09-16|title=Water mass transport through the northern Bashi Channel in the northeastern South China Sea affects copepod assemblages of the Luzon Strait|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s40555-014-0066-7|journal=Zoological Studies|volume=53|issue=1|pages=66|doi=10.1186/s40555-014-0066-7|issn=1810-522X}}</ref>. The Kuroshio Current intrusion has a major influence on C. sinicus and E. concinna, which are two copepod species with higher index values for winter and are known to originate from the [[East China Sea]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hwang|first=Jiang-Shiou|last2=Dahms|first2=Hans-Uwe|last3=Tseng|first3=Li-Chun|last4=Chen|first4=Qing-Chao|date=2007-11|title=Intrusions of the Kuroshio Current in the northern South China Sea affect copepod assemblages of the Luzon Strait|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S002209810700322X|journal=Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology|language=en|volume=352|issue=1|pages=12–27|doi=10.1016/j.jembe.2007.06.034}}</ref>. During the southwestern [[monsoon]] season, the South China Sea Surface Current moves northward during the summer toward the Kuroshio Current. As a result of this water circulation and mixing, the [[zooplankton]] communities in the boundary waters are unique, more nutritious, and diverse<ref>{{Cite web|title=Airiti Library|url=https://www.airitilibrary.com/Publication/alDetailedMesh?docid=10170839-199209-3-3-321-334-a.|access-date=2021-11-29|website=www.airitilibrary.com}}</ref>.

Like copepods and diatoms, [[Tunicate|tunicates]], specifically [[Salp|salps]] and [[Doliolida|doliolids]], also play an important role on the biogeochemical cycle as well as on the food chain<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Ishak|first=Nurul Huda Ahmad|last2=Tadokoro|first2=Kazuaki|last3=Okazaki|first3=Yuji|last4=Kakehi|first4=Shigeho|last5=Suyama|first5=Satoshi|last6=Takahashi|first6=Kazutaka|date=2020|title=Distribution, biomass, and species composition of salps and doliolids in the Oyashio–Kuroshio transitional region: potential impact of massive bloom on the pelagic food web|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10872-020-00549-3|journal=Journal of Oceanography|language=en|volume=76|issue=5|pages=351–363|doi=10.1007/s10872-020-00549-3|issn=0916-8370}}</ref>. [[Thaliacea|Thaliacean]] (salp and doliolid) blooms have even been found to cause harmful feeding conditions for pelagic fishes in the region<ref name=":8" />.

Another important contributor to the Kuroshio Current system food chain are the fish larvae throughout the current. A study conducted over seven transect crossings in the Kuroshio current concluded that of 7,819 fish larvae collected, 72% of all species belonged to family [[Lanternfish|Myctophid]], or lanternfishes<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sassa|first=Chiyuki|last2=Moser|first2=H. Geoffrey|last3=Kawaguchi|first3=Kouichi|date=2002-01-01|title=Horizontal and vertical distribution patterns of larval myctophid fishes in the Kuroshio Current region|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2419.2002.00182.x|journal=Fisheries Oceanography|volume=11|issue=1|pages=1–10|doi=10.1046/j.1365-2419.2002.00182.x|issn=1054-6006}}</ref>. The Kuroshio Current also plays a large role in the transport of jack mackerel larvae and eggs from jack mackerel nursery grounds in shallow waters to the south west of the current<ref>{{Cite journal|last=SASSA|first=CHIYUKI|last2=KONISHI|first2=YOSHINOBU|last3=MORI|first3=KEN|date=2006-11|title=Distribution of jack mackerel (Trachurus japonicus) larvae and juveniles in the East China Sea, with special reference to the larval transport by the Kuroshio Current|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2419.2006.00417.x|journal=Fisheries Oceanography|volume=15|issue=6|pages=508–518|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2419.2006.00417.x|issn=1054-6006}}</ref>.

==== Coral ====
[[File:Acropora hyacinthus, NPS.jpg|thumb|294x294px|Acropora hyacinthus is a reef-building coral native to coral reefs in the Kuroshio Current region.]]
The coral reef within the Kuroshio Current resides at a higher latitude than any other reef placement in the world (33.48°N)<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2019-04-10|editor-last=Nagai|editor-first=Takeyoshi|editor2-last=Saito|editor2-first=Hiroaki|editor3-last=Suzuki|editor3-first=Koji|editor4-last=Takahashi|editor4-first=Motomitsu|title=Kuroshio Current|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781119428428|journal=Geophysical Monograph Series|doi=10.1002/9781119428428|issn=2328-8779}}</ref>. An important reef-building coral to this area, [[Blue coral|Heliopora coerulea]], has become threatened due to anthropogenic stressors to its environment, such as [[Blast fishing|dynamite fishing]]<ref name=":35">Aldea, K. Q., Morales, M. I., Arajo, A. E., & Masagca, J. T. (2015). Biodiversity in the Kuroshio Region: Challenges and Trends in the Upstream.</ref>. Studies confirming low genotypic diversity within the species further emphasizes this blue coral’s threatened status<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yasuda|first=Nina|last2=Taquet|first2=Coralie|last3=Nagai|first3=Satoshi|last4=Fortes|first4=Miguel|last5=Fan|first5=Tung-Yung|last6=Phongsuwan|first6=Niphon|last7=Nadaoka|first7=Kazuo|date=2014-01-01|title=Genetic structure and cryptic speciation in the threatened reef-building coral <I>Heliopora coerulea</I> along Kuroshio Current|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5343/bms.2012.1105|journal=Bulletin of Marine Science|volume=90|issue=1|pages=233–255|doi=10.5343/bms.2012.1105|issn=0007-4977}}</ref>.

[[Acropora]] japonica, [[Acropora secale]], and [[Acropora hyacinthus|Acropora hyacinthu]]<nowiki/>s, are 3 more reef-building corals in the region<ref name=":172">{{Cite journal|last=Maoka|first=Takashi|last2=Akimoto|first2=Naoshige|last3=Tsushima|first3=Miyuki|last4=Komemushi|first4=Sadao|last5=Mezaki|first5=Takuma|last6=Iwase|first6=Fumihito|last7=Takahashi|first7=Yoshimitsu|last8=Sameshima|first8=Naomi|last9=Mori|first9=Miho|last10=Sakagami|first10=Yoshikazu|date=2011-08-22|title=Carotenoids in Marine Invertebrates Living along the Kuroshio Current Coast|url=http://www.mdpi.com/1660-3397/9/8/1419|journal=Marine Drugs|language=en|volume=9|issue=8|pages=1419–1427|doi=10.3390/md9081419|issn=1660-3397|pmc=PMC3164383|pmid=21892355}}</ref>. These species utilize symbiotic relationships with zooxanthellae, [[peridinin]] and pyrrhoxanthin as a source of [[Carotenoid|carotenoids]]<ref name=":172" />.

In addition to anthropogenic devastation, these corals also have predators in the region such as the [[Crown-of-thorns starfish]], Acanthaster planci, and a regional sea snail, [[Drupella fragum]]<ref name=":172" />. When conditions are favorable for A. planci, the starfish is known to wreak havoc on entire coral communities as well as the ecosystems these coral reefs support. A Crown-of-thorns starfish outbreak in conjunction with anthropogenic stressors can cause irreversible reef-system damage.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Inoue|first=Jun|last2=Hisata|first2=Kanako|last3=Yasuda|first3=Nina|last4=Satoh|first4=Noriyuki|date=2020-07-01|title=An Investigation into the Genetic History of Japanese Populations of Three Starfish, Acanthaster planci, Linckia laevigata, and Asterias amurensis, Based on Complete Mitochondrial DNA Sequences|url=https://www.g3journal.org/content/10/7/2519|journal=G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics|language=en|volume=10|issue=7|pages=2519–2528|doi=10.1534/g3.120.401155|issn=2160-1836|pmid=32471940}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Crown-of-Thorns Starfish {{!}} AIMS|url=https://www.aims.gov.au/docs/research/biodiversity-ecology/threats/cots.html|access-date=2021-11-29|website=www.aims.gov.au}}</ref>

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====Squid====
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The [[Japanese flying squid]] (Todarodes pacificus) has three stocks that breed in winter, summer, and autumn. The winter spawning group is associated with the Kuroshio Current. After spawning in January to April in the [[East China Sea]], the larvae and juveniles travel north with the Kuroshio Current. They are turned inshore and are caught between the islands of [[Honshu]] and [[Hokkaido]] during the summer. The summer spawning is in another part of the East China Sea, from which the larvae are entrained into the [[Tsushima Strait|Tsushima current]] that flows north between the islands of Japan and the mainland. Afterward, the current meets a southward flowing cold coastal current, the Liman Current, and the summer-spawned squid are fished along the boundary between the two. This illustrates the use of these [[western boundary currents]] as a rapid transport that enable the eggs and larvae to develop during winter in warm water, while the adults travel with minimum energy expenditure to exploit the rich northern feeding grounds. Studies have reported that annual catches in Japan have gradually increased since the late 1980s and it has been proposed that changing environmental conditions have caused the autumn and winter spawning areas in the Tsushima Strait and near the [[Goto Islands]] to overlap. In addition, winter spawning sites over the [[continental shelf]] and slope in the East China Sea are expanding.


==References==
==References==

Revision as of 23:37, 29 November 2021

"Kuroshio" redirects here. For other uses, see Kuroshio (disambiguation).
Map showing 5 circles. The first is between western Australia and eastern Africa. The second is between eastern Australia and western South America. The third is between Japan and western North America. Of the two in the Atlantic, one is in hemisphere.
North Atlantic
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North Atlantic
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North Atlantic
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Indian
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Map showing 5 circles. The first is between western Australia and eastern Africa. The second is between eastern Australia and western South America. The third is between Japan and western North America. Of the two in the Atlantic, one is in hemisphere.
The Kuroshio Current is the west side of the clockwise North Pacific ocean gyre

The Kuroshio (黒潮), also known as the Black or Japan Current (日本海流, Nihon Kairyū) or the Black Stream, is a north-flowing, warm ocean current on the west side of the North Pacific Ocean. It was named for the deep blue of its waters. Like the Gulf Stream in the North Atlantic, the Kuroshio is a powerful western boundary current and forms the western limb of the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre. The Kuroshio Current plays major roles in both physical and biological processes of the North Pacific Ocean. Nutrient and sediment transport, influences on major pacific storm tracks and regional climates, and Pacific mode water formation are some of the major functions resulting from the pole-ward flow and input of warm equatorial waters northward by the Kuroshio Current.[1][2][3] Additionally, the current is a biologically rich region supporting a strong fishing industry and many different trophic levels of marine life, which are greatly enhanced by the high nutrient transport. The South China Sea for example has relatively low nutrient concentrations in its upper waters, but experiences enhanced biological productivity due to the input from the Kuroshio Current Intrusion.[4] Ongoing research centered around the Kuroshio Current's response to climate change predicts a strengthening in surface flows of this western boundary current which contrasts the predicted changes in the Atlantic Ocean.[5]

Physical properties

Averaged winter sea surface temperatures in the western Pacific Ocean using satellite data. The Kuroshio current is warm, compared to cooler waters in the Yellow Sea, and Sea of Japan.

The Kuroshio is a warm current—24 °C (75 °F) annual average sea-surface temperature—about 100 kilometres (62 mi) wide and produces frequent small to meso-scale eddies. The Kuroshio originates from the Pacific North Equatorial Current, which splits in two at the east coast of Luzon, Philippines, to form the southward-flowing Mindanao Current and the more significant northward-flowing Kuroshio Current.[6] East of Taiwan, the Kuroshio enters the Sea of Japan through a deep break in the Ryukyu island chain known as the Yonaguni Depression. The Kuroshio then continues northwards and parallel to the Ryukyu islands, steered by the deepest part of the Sea of Japan, the Okinawa Trough, before leaving the Sea of Japan and re-entering the Pacific through the Tokara Strait.[7] It then flows along the southern margin of Japan but meanders significantly.[8] At the Bōsō Peninsula, the Kuroshio finally separates from the Japanese coast and travels eastward as the Kuroshio Extension.[9] The Kuroshio Current is the Pacific analogue of the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic Ocean,[10] transporting warm, tropical water northward toward the polar region.

Similarly to the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic Ocean, the Kuroshio Current provides warm ocean surface temperatures, and significant moisture to the atmosphere. These characteristics of the Kuroshio Current can produce and sustain tropical cyclones. Tropical cyclones also known as typhoons are formed when atmospheric instability, warm ocean surface temperatures, and moist air are combined. On average the Western North Pacific Ocean experiences 25 typhoons annually. [11] There is a strong seasonality with the majority of typhoons occurring from July through October during northern hemisphere summer.[11] Typhoons typically form where the Kuroshio Current is the warmest near the equator. Typhoons tend to track along the warm water transported by the current poleward until they dissipate. [12]

The strength (transport) of the Kuroshio varies along its path. Within the Sea of Japan, observations suggest that the Kuroshio transport is relatively steady at about 25Sv[13][14] (25 million cubic metres per second). The Kuroshio strengthens significantly when it rejoins the Pacific Ocean, reaching 65Sv (65 million cubic metres per second) southeast of Japan,[7] although this transport has significant seasonal variability.[15]

The Kuroshio's counterparts are the North Pacific Current to the north, the California Current to the east, and the North Equatorial Current to the south. The warm waters of the Kuroshio Current sustain the coral reefs of Japan, the northernmost coral reefs in the world. The part of the Kuroshio that branches into the Sea of Japan is called Tsushima Current (対馬海流, Tsushima Kairyū).

Western Pacific Ocean shaded relief map. The deep ocean is dark blue, shallow areas are light blue, and seamounts are indicated by an intense shift in color hue.

There is some debate as to whether the path of the Kuroshio was different in the past. It has been proposed on the basis of proxy evidence that a fall in sea-level and tectonics may have prevented the Kuroshio from entering the Sea of Japan during the last glacial period, instead remaining entirely within the Pacific.[16] However, recent evidence from other proxies and ocean models has alternatively suggested that the Kuroshio path was relatively unaltered,[17][18] possibly as far back as 700,000 years ago.[19]

Sediment Transport

The Kuroshio Current is an agent of deep sea erosion and sediment transport. This erosion has been observed offshore of Southern Taiwan on the Kenting Plateau, and is likely caused by the strong bottom currents which increase in velocity along this plateau.[20] The bottom water accelerates as it travels from a depth of 3500m to a depth around 400-700m. This increase in speed exacerbates its eroding abilities. This erosion has revealed the Kuroshio Knoll, a 3km x 7km bean-shaped elevated flat area 60-70 m below surface levels in comparison to the rest of the Plateau which located at around 400-700m.[21]

The Kenting Plateau and surrounding area demonstrate the eroding qualities of the Kuroshio Current[20]. The particle size of the sand varies from the edge of the Plateau into the deep sea, with fine sand particles eroded away from the plateau. Some of these fine sand particles have settled into a dune field while the remaining sediment is moved and deposited throughout the region by the Kuroshio Current.[21]

The Kuroshio Current also transports Yangtze River sediment. The amount of transport is highly dependent on the relationship between the Kuroshio Current intrusion, the China Coastal Current, and the Taiwan Warm Current. The Yangtze River sediment is being deposited on the East China Sea inner shelf rather than the deep sea due to the three currents' interaction with one another. [22]

The Kuroshio Current, as idealized from space. The resulting circulation and eddying demonstrate the mixing caused by the input of warm equatorial water poleward. Image by NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.

Sediments often have certain elemental characteristic qualities. Taiwan sediment notably contains illite and chlorite. These traceable compounds have been found all the way through the Kuroshio Current up into its branch through the Kuroshio Current Intrusion in the South China Sea.[23] The South China Sea branch of the Kuroshio and the cyclonic eddy west of Luzon Island impact Luzon and Pearl River sediments. The Luzon sediment containing high levels of smectite is unable to travel northwestward. The Pearl River contains high levels of kaolinite and titanium (Ti). The Pearl River sediment is trapped above the abyssal basin between Hainan Island and the Pearl River mouth. [22]

Eddies

There are indications that eddies contribute to the preservation and survival of fish larvae transported by the Kuroshio.[24] Plankton biomass fluctuates yearly and is typically highest in the eddy area of the Kuroshio’s edge. Warm-core rings are not known for having high productivity. However, there is evidence of equal distribution of biological productivity throughout the warm-core rings from the Kuroshio Current, supported by the upwelling at the periphery and the convective mixing caused by the cooling of surface water as the rings move north of the current. The thermostad is the deep mixed layer that has discrete boundaries and uniform temperature. Within this layer, nutrient-rich water is brought to the surface, which generates a burst of primary production. Given that the water in the core of a ring has a different temperature regime than the shelf waters, there are times when a warm-core ring is undergoing its spring bloom while the surrounding shelf waters are not.[25]

Western Pacific Ocean tropical cyclone tracks compiled from 1980 to 2005.

There are many complex interactions within warm-core rings and thus, lifetime productivity is not very different from the surrounding shelf water. A study from 1998 [25] found that the primary productivity within a warm-core ring was almost the same as in the cold jet outside it, with evidence of upwelling of nutrients within the ring. In addition, there was discovery of dense populations of phytoplankton at the nutricline within a ring, presumably supported by the upward mixing of nutrients.[25] Furthermore, there have been acoustic studies in the warm-core ring, which showed intense sound scattering from zooplankton and fish populations in the ring and very sparse acoustic signals outside of it.

Typhoons

Typhoons can produce intense winds which push on the surface layer of the ocean for brief periods of time. These winds induce the warmer surface layer of the ocean to mix with the deeper cooler layer of water that is situated below the pycnocline. This mixing introduces nutrients from deeper cooler water to the warmer surface layer of the ocean. [26] Organisms such as phytoplankton and algae use these newly introduced nutrients to grow. In 2003, two typhoons induced significant surface layer mixing as they passed through the region. This mixing directly produced two algal bloom events in the North Western Pacific Ocean that negatively affected Japan. [27]

Nutrient Transport

Annual average chlorophyll concentrations are shaded, and annual average surface (A) nitrate and (B) phosphate concentrations are contoured. The Kuroshio Current transports nitrate and phosphate from the South China Sea, increasing productivity.

The Kuroshio Current is a nutrient stream and is ranked as a moderately high productivity ecosystem with primary production of 150 to 300 grams (5 to 11 oz) of carbon per square meter per year based on SeaWiFS global primary productivity estimates. The coastal areas are highly productive and the maximum chlorophyll value is found around 100 metres (330 ft) depth.[28] The nutrient rich water in the Kuroshio Current is surrounded by ambient water of the same density with lower relative nutrient levels. The downstream of the Kuroshio Current receives large amounts of nutrients at rates of 100-280 kmol N*s-1.[29] Nutrient injections from deeper layers into surface sunlit laters are found where the Kuroshio Current flows over shallow areas and seamounts. These are in the Okinawa Trough and the Tokara Strait. [30] The Tokara Strait has high cyclonic activity where the Kuroshio Current passes through. This in combination with the Coriolis effect causes intense mixing along the continental shelf. [30] This upwelling and nutrient injection into surface layers is essential for primary production because these vital nutrients would otherwise be inaccessible to phytoplankton which need to remain in upper layers where sunlight is available for them to perform photosynthesis. The constant transport of nutrient rich waters to regions with high levels of light therefore supports increased photosynthesis. This photosynthesis then allows for primary producer growth, helping to support the rest of the ecosystem.

Marine Life

The Oyashio Current colliding with the Kuroshio Current near Hokkaido. When two currents collide, they create eddies. Phytoplankton growing in the surface waters become concentrated along the boundaries of these eddies, tracing out the motions of the water.

Biodiversity

Understanding the biodiversity of an ecosystem is important in determining the health of a region and can be an indicator for changes in the environment. The Kuroshio Current is a biodiversity hotspot, meaning the waters circulating through the region are highly fertile and are host to many different species, yet many of its resident organisms are at risk of becoming endangered or are already at the brink of extinction as a result of local and/or global human activity. Many of these threatened or endangered species are at risk because of overfishing and overharvesting.[31]

Invertebrates

Foraminifera

The Kuroshio Current intrusion redistributive impacts are seen with foraminifera species G. ruber and P. obliquiloculate. The distribution of these species in comparison to their standard dwelling depths demonstrates the redistributing power of the Kuroshio Current intrusion[32]. G. ruber is normally a surface dweller and was found at depths of 1000 meters along the Kuroshio Current. P. obliquiloculate which normally resides between 25 and 100 m, was found deep in the abyssal basin (>1000m)[32].

Phytoplankton

Phytoplankton, like in most epipelagic and mesopelagic systems, are the primary source of biological energy for the Kuroshio Current. Warm sea surface temperatures and low turbidity in the region lead to clearer waters which allows for deeper penetration of sunlight and an extension of the epipelagic zone. These particular characteristics correspond well with the requirements of two specific cyanobacteria: Prochlorococcus and Synechococcus[33]. Prochlorococcus is in fact the dominating species of picophytoplankton within the Kuroshio Current and these two species working together are speculated to be responsible for as much as half of the fixation of CO2 in the entire Kuroshio Current photic zone[33]. Further, there are substantial dust deposition events in these regions due to Asian Dust Storms from the Saharan desert[33]. These depositions of phosphate and trace metals influence growth in both Prochlorococcus and Synechococcus as well as in diatoms[33].

Diatoms and Trichodesmium (a nitrogen fixing cyanobacterium genus, present in the surface waters of the Kuroshio Current) are also speculated to play an important role in the redistribution of carbon and nitrogen out of the euphotic zone in this region which is caused by the upwelling and subsequent transport of nitrate to surface waters[34].

At least ten genera of seaweed reside in waters in and around the Kuroshio Current[35]. Caulerpa, is a green algae that grows densely near shore on the periphery of the Kuroshio Current while brown and red algae also flourish adjacent the current, and like other photosynthesizing organisms, benefit from the nutrient transport and low turbidity of the region[35].

Zooplankton

An increase in zooplankton biomass occurs in the significantly lower water temperatures of the upwelling sites within the Kuroshio Current due to increased NO3-N concentrations, protein and lipid content that this particular upwelling event surfaces[36]. It has been suggested that copepods have been transported from the Kuroshio Current into southwest Taiwan through the Luzon Strait. The Kuroshio Current intrusion through the Luzon Strait, and further into the South China Sea, may explain why copepods show such a high diversity in adjacent waters of the intrusion areas[37]. The Kuroshio Current intrusion has a major influence on C. sinicus and E. concinna, which are two copepod species with higher index values for winter and are known to originate from the East China Sea[38]. During the southwestern monsoon season, the South China Sea Surface Current moves northward during the summer toward the Kuroshio Current. As a result of this water circulation and mixing, the zooplankton communities in the boundary waters are unique, more nutritious, and diverse[39].

Like copepods and diatoms, tunicates, specifically salps and doliolids, also play an important role on the biogeochemical cycle as well as on the food chain[40]. Thaliacean (salp and doliolid) blooms have even been found to cause harmful feeding conditions for pelagic fishes in the region[40].

Another important contributor to the Kuroshio Current system food chain are the fish larvae throughout the current. A study conducted over seven transect crossings in the Kuroshio current concluded that of 7,819 fish larvae collected, 72% of all species belonged to family Myctophid, or lanternfishes[41]. The Kuroshio Current also plays a large role in the transport of jack mackerel larvae and eggs from jack mackerel nursery grounds in shallow waters to the south west of the current[42].

Coral

Acropora hyacinthus is a reef-building coral native to coral reefs in the Kuroshio Current region.

The coral reef within the Kuroshio Current resides at a higher latitude than any other reef placement in the world (33.48°N)[43]. An important reef-building coral to this area, Heliopora coerulea, has become threatened due to anthropogenic stressors to its environment, such as dynamite fishing[44]. Studies confirming low genotypic diversity within the species further emphasizes this blue coral’s threatened status[45].

Acropora japonica, Acropora secale, and Acropora hyacinthus, are 3 more reef-building corals in the region[46]. These species utilize symbiotic relationships with zooxanthellae, peridinin and pyrrhoxanthin as a source of carotenoids[46].

In addition to anthropogenic devastation, these corals also have predators in the region such as the Crown-of-thorns starfish, Acanthaster planci, and a regional sea snail, Drupella fragum[46]. When conditions are favorable for A. planci, the starfish is known to wreak havoc on entire coral communities as well as the ecosystems these coral reefs support. A Crown-of-thorns starfish outbreak in conjunction with anthropogenic stressors can cause irreversible reef-system damage.[47][48]

Squid

The Japanese flying squid (Todarodes pacificus) has three stocks that breed in winter, summer, and autumn. The winter spawning group is associated with the Kuroshio Current. After spawning in January to April in the East China Sea, the larvae and juveniles travel north with the Kuroshio Current. They are turned inshore and are caught between the islands of Honshu and Hokkaido during the summer. The summer spawning is in another part of the East China Sea, from which the larvae are entrained into the Tsushima current that flows north between the islands of Japan and the mainland. Afterward, the current meets a southward flowing cold coastal current, the Liman Current, and the summer-spawned squid are fished along the boundary between the two. This illustrates the use of these western boundary currents as a rapid transport that enable the eggs and larvae to develop during winter in warm water, while the adults travel with minimum energy expenditure to exploit the rich northern feeding grounds. Studies have reported that annual catches in Japan have gradually increased since the late 1980s and it has been proposed that changing environmental conditions have caused the autumn and winter spawning areas in the Tsushima Strait and near the Goto Islands to overlap. In addition, winter spawning sites over the continental shelf and slope in the East China Sea are expanding.

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External links

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