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#REDIRECT [[Pleuston#Neuston]]
==Neuston==
[[File:Wasserläufer bei der Paarung crop.jpg|right|thumb|upright=1.3| {{center|The [[water strider]], a common freshwater neuston}}]]
[[File:Physalia physalis EM1B0679 (40827501481).jpg|thumb|{{center|Sail}}]]
[[File:Fis01007 (27889419550).jpg|thumb|{{center|neuston net}}]]


The marine neuston, organisms living in the vicinity of the ocean surface, is one of the least studied zooplankton groups. Neuston occupies a restricted ecological niche and is affected by a wide range of endogenous and exogenous processes while also being a food source to zooplankton fish migrating from the deep layers and seabirds.<ref name=Albuquerque2021>{{cite journal |doi = 10.3389/fmars.2020.606088|doi-access = free|title = Trophic Structure of Neuston Across Tropical and Subtropical Oceanic Provinces Assessed with Stable Isotopes|year = 2021|last1 = Albuquerque|first1 = Rui|last2 = Bode|first2 = Antonio|last3 = González-Gordillo|first3 = Juan Ignacio|last4 = Duarte|first4 = Carlos M.|last5 = Queiroga|first5 = Henrique|journal = Frontiers in Marine Science|volume = 7}} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Material was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License].</ref>
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The neuston, one of the less described and known aquatic ecological groups, is paradoxically the closest to our sampling platforms as it inhabits the upper centimeters of the ocean. The term neuston was coined in 1972{{hsp}}<ref name=Hempel1972>{{cite journal |doi = 10.1007/BF00351141|doi-broken-date = 2021-12-09}}</ref> to define the pelagic organisms that occupy the vicinity of the surface layer, albeit often in a temporally-restricted and variable manner. Neuston occupies a delimited ecological niche and is generally grouped into three ecological categories: (a) euneuston: organisms with maximum abundance in the vicinity of the surface on which they reside day and night; (b) facultative neuston: organisms concentrating at the surface only during certain hours of the day, usually during darkness; and (c) pseudoneuston: organisms with maximum concentrations at deeper layers but reaching the surface layer at least during certain hours.<ref name=Marshall2005>{{cite journal |doi = 10.1127/0003-9136/2005/0164-0429|title = Neuston: Its definition with a historical review regarding its concept and community structure|year = 2005|last1 = Marshall|first1 = Harold G.|last2 = Burchardt|first2 = Lubomira|journal = Archiv für Hydrobiologie|volume = 164|issue = 4|pages = 429–448}}</ref> The neustonic community structure is conditioned by sunlight and an array of endogenous (organic matter, respiratory, photosynthetic, decompositional processes) and exogenous (atmospheric deposition, inorganic matter, winds, wave action, precipitation, UV radiation, oceanic currents, surface temperature) variables and processes affecting nutrient inputs and recycling.<ref name=Marshall2005 /><ref>{{cite journal |doi = 10.3318/bioe.2005.105.2.107|title = Temporal Variation in Diversity and Community Structure of a Semi-Isolated Neuston Community|year = 2005|last1 = Barnes|first1 = D. K.A.|last2 = Davenport|first2 = J.|last3 = Rawlinson|first3 = K. A.|journal = Biology & Environment: Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy|volume = 105|issue = 2|pages = 107–122}}</ref><ref name=Rezai2019>{{cite journal |doi = 10.1016/j.rsma.2018.100473|title = Neustonic zooplankton in the northeastern Persian Gulf|year = 2019|last1 = Rezai|first1 = Hamid|last2 = Kabiri|first2 = Keivan|last3 = Arbi|first3 = Iman|last4 = Amini|first4 = Nafiseh|journal = Regional Studies in Marine Science|volume = 26|page = 100473|s2cid = 135269465}}</ref> Furthermore, the neuston provides a food source to the zooplankton migrating from deeper layers to the surface,<ref name=Hempel1972 /> as well as to seabirds roaming over the oceans.<ref>Cheng, L., Spear, L. and AINLEY, D.G. (2010) "Importance of marine insects (Heteroptera: Gerridae, Halobates spp.) as prey of eastern tropical Pacific seabirds". ''Marine Ornithology'', '''38'''": 91–95.</ref> For these reasons, the neustonic community is believed to play a critical role on the structure and function of marine food webs. Yet, research on neuston communities to date focused predominantly on geographically-limited regions of the ocean{{hsp}}<ref>Zaitsev, Y. P. (1971). Marine Neustonology. ed. K. A. Vinogradov (Jerulasem: Israel program for scientific translations).</ref><ref name=Hempel1972 /><ref>{{cite journal |doi = 10.1007/BF00393027|title = A comparative survey of neuston: Geographical and temporal distribution patterns|year = 1983|last1 = Holdway|first1 = P.|last2 = Maddock|first2 = L.|journal = Marine Biology|volume = 76|issue = 3|pages = 263–270|s2cid = 84587026}}</ref><ref>Ebberts, B. D., and Wing, B. L. (1997). "Diversity and abundance of neustonic zooplankton in the North Pacific subarctic frontal zone". U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-AFSC-70.</ref><ref name=Rezai2019 /> or coastal areas.<ref>{{cite journal |doi = 10.1139/z89-284|title = Neustonic feeding by juvenile salmonids in coastal waters of the Northeast Pacific|year = 1989|last1 = Brodeur|first1 = Richard D.|journal = Canadian Journal of Zoology|volume = 67|issue = 8|pages = 1995–2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi = 10.3354/meps075185|title = Neustonic niche for cirripede larvae as a possible adaptation to long-range dispersal|year = 1991|last1 = Le Fèvre|first1 = J.|last2 = Bourget|first2 = E.|journal = Marine Ecology Progress Series|volume = 75|pages = 185–194|bibcode = 1991MEPS...75..185L}}</ref><ref>Padmavati, G. and Goswami, S.C. (1996). "Zooplankton distribution in neuston and water column along west coast of India from Goa to Gujarat". ''Indian J. Mar. Species'', '''25''': 85–90.</ref> Consequently, neuston complexity is still poorly understood as studies on the community structure and the taxonomical composition of organisms inhabiting this ecological niche remain few,<ref name=Rezai2019 /> and global scale analyses are yet lacking.<ref name=Albuquerque2021 />
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The neustonic animals form a subset of the zooplankton community, which plays a pivotal role in the functioning of marine ecosystems. Zooplankton are partially responsible for the active energy flux between superficial and deep layers of the ocean.<ref>{{cite journal |doi = 10.3354/ame027057|title = Zooplankton fecal pellets, marine snow and sinking phytoplankton blooms|year = 2002|last1 = Turner|first1 = JT|journal = Aquatic Microbial Ecology|volume = 27|pages = 57–102}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi = 10.1073/pnas.1512110112|title = Seasonal copepod lipid pump promotes carbon sequestration in the deep North Atlantic|year = 2015|last1 = Jónasdóttir|first1 = Sigrún Huld|last2 = Visser|first2 = André W.|last3 = Richardson|first3 = Katherine|last4 = Heath|first4 = Michael R.|journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume = 112|issue = 39|pages = 12122–12126|pmid = 26338976|pmc = 4593097|doi-access = free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi = 10.1038/s41467-020-19875-7|title = Large deep-sea zooplankton biomass mirrors primary production in the global ocean|year = 2020|last1 = Hernández-León|first1 = S.|last2 = Koppelmann|first2 = R.|last3 = Fraile-Nuez|first3 = E.|last4 = Bode|first4 = A.|last5 = Mompeán|first5 = C.|last6 = Irigoien|first6 = X.|last7 = Olivar|first7 = M. P.|last8 = Echevarría|first8 = F.|last9 = Fernández De Puelles|first9 = M. L.|last10 = González-Gordillo|first10 = J. I.|last11 = Cózar|first11 = A.|last12 = Acuña|first12 = J. L.|last13 = Agustí|first13 = S.|last14 = Duarte|first14 = C. M.|journal = Nature Communications|volume = 11|s2cid = 227191974}}</ref> Zooplankton species composition, biomass, and secondary production influence a wide range of trophic levels in marine communities, as they constitute a link between primary production and secondary consumers.<ref name=Litchman2013>{{cite journal |doi = 10.1093/plankt/fbt019|title = Trait-based approaches to zooplankton communities|year = 2013|last1 = Litchman|first1 = Elena|last2 = Ohman|first2 = Mark D.|last3 = Kiørboe|first3 = Thomas|journal = Journal of Plankton Research|volume = 35|issue = 3|pages = 473–484}}</ref><ref name=Benedetti2016 /><ref name=deOliveira2019>{{cite journal |doi = 10.1007/s40071-019-0233-x|title = How planktonic microcrustaceans respond to environment and affect ecosystem: A functional trait perspective|year = 2019|last1 = Sodré|first1 = Elder de Oliveira|last2 = Bozelli|first2 = Reinaldo Luiz|journal = International Aquatic Research|volume = 11|issue = 3|pages = 207–223|s2cid = 197594398}}</ref> Copepods constitute the most abundant zooplankton taxon in terms of biomass and diversity worldwide;<ref name="Kiørboe2011">{{cite journal |doi = 10.1111/j.1469-185X.2010.00148.x|title = How zooplankton feed: Mechanisms, traits and trade-offs|year = 2011|last1 = Kiørboe|first1 = Thomas|journal = Biological Reviews|volume = 86|issue = 2|pages = 311–339|pmid = 20682007|s2cid = 25218654}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi = 10.3389/fmicb.2018.00355|doi-access = free|title = Zooplankton from a Reef System Under the Influence of the Amazon River Plume|year = 2018|last1 = Neumann-Leitão|first1 = Sigrid|last2 = Melo|first2 = Pedro A. M. C.|last3 = Schwamborn|first3 = Ralf|last4 = Diaz|first4 = Xiomara F. G.|last5 = Figueiredo|first5 = Lucas G. P.|last6 = Silva|first6 = Andrea P.|last7 = Campelo|first7 = Renata P. S.|last8 = Melo Júnior|first8 = Mauro de|last9 = Melo|first9 = Nuno F. A. C.|last10 = Costa|first10 = Alejandro E. S. F.|last11 = Araújo|first11 = Moacyr|last12 = Veleda|first12 = Dóris R. A.|last13 = Moura|first13 = Rodrigo L.|last14 = Thompson|first14 = Fabiano|journal = Frontiers in Microbiology|volume = 9|page = 355|pmid = 29545783|pmc = 5838004}}</ref> therefore, changes in their community composition can thus impact the biogeochemical cycles{{hsp}}<ref>{{cite journal |doi = 10.1002/lno.10219|title = Global patterns of diel vertical migration times and velocities from acoustic data|year = 2016|last1 = Bianchi|first1 = Daniele|last2 = Mislan|first2 = K. A. S.|journal = Limnology and Oceanography|volume = 61|issue = 1|pages = 353–364|bibcode = 2016LimOc..61..353B}}</ref> and might be indicative of climate variability impacts on ecosystem functioning.<ref>{{cite journal |doi = 10.4319/lo.2006.51.6.2607|title = Copepod biodiversity as an indicator of changes in ocean and climate conditions of the northern California current ecosystem|year = 2006|last1 = Hooff|first1 = Rian C.|last2 = Peterson|first2 = William T.|journal = Limnology and Oceanography|volume = 51|issue = 6|pages = 2607–2620|bibcode = 2006LimOc..51.2607H}}</ref><ref name=Albuquerque2021 />

Historically, zooplankton assemblages research has focused mainly on taxonomic studies and those related to community structure.<ref name=Pomerleau2015>{{cite journal |doi = 10.1093/plankt/fbv045|title = Evaluation of functional trait diversity for marine zooplankton communities in the Northeast subarctic Pacific Ocean|year = 2015|last1 = Pomerleau|first1 = Corinne|last2 = Sastri|first2 = Akash R.|last3 = Beisner|first3 = Beatrix E.|journal = Journal of Plankton Research|volume = 37|issue = 4|pages = 712–726}}</ref> However, recently, research has veered toward an alternative trait-based approach,<ref name=Pomerleau2015/><ref name=Benedetti2016 /><ref>{{cite journal |doi = 10.1016/j.ecolind.2017.08.018|title = Ecological indicators and functional groups of copepod assemblages|year = 2017|last1 = Campos|first1 = C.C.|last2 = Garcia|first2 = T.M.|last3 = Neumann-Leitão|first3 = S.|last4 = Soares|first4 = M.O.|journal = Ecological Indicators|volume = 83|pages = 416–426}}</ref> providing a perspective more focused on groups of species with analogous functional traits. This allows individuals to be classified into types characterized by the presence/absence of certain alleles of a gene, into size classes, ecological guilds, or functional groups (FGs).<ref>{{cite journal |doi = 10.1111/j.1600-0587.2009.05880.x|title = A diversity of beta diversities: Straightening up a concept gone awry. Part 1. Defining beta diversity as a function of alpha and gamma diversity|year = 2010|last1 = Tuomisto|first1 = Hanna|journal = Ecography|volume = 33|pages = 2–22}}</ref> Functional traits are phenotypes affecting organism fitness, growth, survival, and reproductive ability.<ref>{{cite journal |doi = 10.1111/j.2007.0030-1299.15559.x|title = Let the concept of trait be functional!|year = 2007|last1 = Violle|first1 = Cyrille|last2 = Navas|first2 = Marie-Laure|last3 = Vile|first3 = Denis|last4 = Kazakou|first4 = Elena|last5 = Fortunel|first5 = Claire|last6 = Hummel|first6 = Irène|last7 = Garnier|first7 = Eric|journal = Oikos|volume = 116|issue = 5|pages = 882–892}}</ref><ref name=deOliveira2019 /> These are regulated by the expression of genes within species, and the expression of traits regulate, in turn, the species fitness under contrasting biotic and abiotic circumstances.<ref>{{cite journal |doi = 10.1111/ele.12063|title = The biogeography of marine plankton traits|year = 2013|last1 = Barton|first1 = Andrew D.|last2 = Pershing|first2 = Andrew J.|last3 = Litchman|first3 = Elena|last4 = Record|first4 = Nicholas R.|last5 = Edwards|first5 = Kyle F.|last6 = Finkel|first6 = Zoe V.|last7 = Kiørboe|first7 = Thomas|last8 = Ward|first8 = Ben A.|journal = Ecology Letters|volume = 16|issue = 4|pages = 522–534|pmid = 23360597}}</ref> Moreover, a specific functional trait can also develop from the interactions between other traits and environmental conditions,<ref name="Kiørboe2011" /> leading to a given trait grouping being favored under certain conditions. Zooplankton traits can be classified in accordance to ecological functions – feeding, growth, reproduction, survival, and other characteristics such as morphology, physiology, behavior, or life history.<ref name=Litchman2013 /><ref>{{cite journal |doi = 10.1016/j.dsr2.2014.10.023|title = A coupled stable isotope-size spectrum approach to understanding pelagic food-web dynamics: A case study from the southwest sub-tropical Pacific|year = 2015|last1 = Hunt|first1 = B.P.V.|last2 = Allain|first2 = V.|last3 = Menkes|first3 = C.|last4 = Lorrain|first4 = A.|last5 = Graham|first5 = B.|last6 = Rodier|first6 = M.|last7 = Pagano|first7 = M.|last8 = Carlotti|first8 = F.|journal = Deep Sea Research Part Ii: Topical Studies in Oceanography|volume = 113|pages = 208–224|bibcode = 2015DSRII.113..208H}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi = 10.1111/ele.12688|title = Trait biogeography of marine copepods - an analysis across scales|year = 2016|last1 = Brun|first1 = Philipp|last2 = Payne|first2 = Mark R.|last3 = Kiørboe|first3 = Thomas|journal = Ecology Letters|volume = 19|issue = 12|pages = 1403–1413|pmid = 27726281}}</ref> Particularly, feeding strategies and trophic groups are relevant to ascertain feeding efficiency and associated predation risk.<ref>{{cite journal |doi = 10.5194/essd-9-99-2017|title = A trait database for marine copepods|year = 2017|last1 = Brun|first1 = Philipp|last2 = Payne|first2 = Mark R.|last3 = Kiørboe|first3 = Thomas|journal = Earth System Science Data|volume = 9|issue = 1|pages = 99–113|bibcode = 2017ESSD....9...99B}}</ref> Additionally, they facilitate the understanding of ecosystem services associated with zooplankton, such as the distribution of fisheries or biogeochemical cycling{{hsp}}<ref>{{cite journal |doi = 10.1002/lno.11067|title = Biogeography of zooplankton feeding strategy|year = 2019|last1 = Prowe|first1 = A. E. Friederike|last2 = Visser|first2 = André W.|last3 = Andersen|first3 = Ken H.|last4 = Chiba|first4 = Sanae|last5 = Kiørboe|first5 = Thomas|journal = Limnology and Oceanography|volume = 64|issue = 2|pages = 661–678|bibcode = 2019LimOc..64..661P|s2cid = 91541174}}</ref> while also allowing the positioning of zooplankton taxa in the food web.<ref name=Benedetti2016>{{cite journal |doi = 10.1093/plankt/fbv096|title = Identifying copepod functional groups from species functional traits|year = 2016|last1 = Benedetti|first1 = Fabio|last2 = Gasparini|first2 = Stéphane|last3 = Ayata|first3 = Sakina-Dorothée|journal = Journal of Plankton Research|volume = 38|issue = 1|pages = 159–166|pmid = 26811565|pmc = 4722884}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi = 10.1111/jbi.13166|title = Do functional groups of planktonic copepods differ in their ecological niches?|year = 2018|last1 = Benedetti|first1 = Fabio|last2 = Vogt|first2 = Meike|last3 = Righetti|first3 = Damiano|last4 = Guilhaumon|first4 = François|last5 = Ayata|first5 = Sakina-Dorothée|journal = Journal of Biogeography|volume = 45|issue = 3|pages = 604–616}}</ref><ref name=Albuquerque2021 />

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Portal|Biology}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9055398/neuston |title=neuston - Britannica Online |accessdate=2007-11-13 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica}}

{{aquatic ecosystem topics}}
{{aquatic organisms}}

[[Category:Aquatic ecology]]
[[Category:Ecology terminology]]

Revision as of 01:20, 9 December 2021

Neuston

The water strider, a common freshwater neuston
Sail
neuston net

The marine neuston, organisms living in the vicinity of the ocean surface, is one of the least studied zooplankton groups. Neuston occupies a restricted ecological niche and is affected by a wide range of endogenous and exogenous processes while also being a food source to zooplankton fish migrating from the deep layers and seabirds.[1]

The neuston, one of the less described and known aquatic ecological groups, is paradoxically the closest to our sampling platforms as it inhabits the upper centimeters of the ocean. The term neuston was coined in 1972 [2] to define the pelagic organisms that occupy the vicinity of the surface layer, albeit often in a temporally-restricted and variable manner. Neuston occupies a delimited ecological niche and is generally grouped into three ecological categories: (a) euneuston: organisms with maximum abundance in the vicinity of the surface on which they reside day and night; (b) facultative neuston: organisms concentrating at the surface only during certain hours of the day, usually during darkness; and (c) pseudoneuston: organisms with maximum concentrations at deeper layers but reaching the surface layer at least during certain hours.[3] The neustonic community structure is conditioned by sunlight and an array of endogenous (organic matter, respiratory, photosynthetic, decompositional processes) and exogenous (atmospheric deposition, inorganic matter, winds, wave action, precipitation, UV radiation, oceanic currents, surface temperature) variables and processes affecting nutrient inputs and recycling.[3][4][5] Furthermore, the neuston provides a food source to the zooplankton migrating from deeper layers to the surface,[2] as well as to seabirds roaming over the oceans.[6] For these reasons, the neustonic community is believed to play a critical role on the structure and function of marine food webs. Yet, research on neuston communities to date focused predominantly on geographically-limited regions of the ocean [7][2][8][9][5] or coastal areas.[10][11][12] Consequently, neuston complexity is still poorly understood as studies on the community structure and the taxonomical composition of organisms inhabiting this ecological niche remain few,[5] and global scale analyses are yet lacking.[1]

The neustonic animals form a subset of the zooplankton community, which plays a pivotal role in the functioning of marine ecosystems. Zooplankton are partially responsible for the active energy flux between superficial and deep layers of the ocean.[13][14][15] Zooplankton species composition, biomass, and secondary production influence a wide range of trophic levels in marine communities, as they constitute a link between primary production and secondary consumers.[16][17][18] Copepods constitute the most abundant zooplankton taxon in terms of biomass and diversity worldwide;[19][20] therefore, changes in their community composition can thus impact the biogeochemical cycles [21] and might be indicative of climate variability impacts on ecosystem functioning.[22][1]

Historically, zooplankton assemblages research has focused mainly on taxonomic studies and those related to community structure.[23] However, recently, research has veered toward an alternative trait-based approach,[23][17][24] providing a perspective more focused on groups of species with analogous functional traits. This allows individuals to be classified into types characterized by the presence/absence of certain alleles of a gene, into size classes, ecological guilds, or functional groups (FGs).[25] Functional traits are phenotypes affecting organism fitness, growth, survival, and reproductive ability.[26][18] These are regulated by the expression of genes within species, and the expression of traits regulate, in turn, the species fitness under contrasting biotic and abiotic circumstances.[27] Moreover, a specific functional trait can also develop from the interactions between other traits and environmental conditions,[19] leading to a given trait grouping being favored under certain conditions. Zooplankton traits can be classified in accordance to ecological functions – feeding, growth, reproduction, survival, and other characteristics such as morphology, physiology, behavior, or life history.[16][28][29] Particularly, feeding strategies and trophic groups are relevant to ascertain feeding efficiency and associated predation risk.[30] Additionally, they facilitate the understanding of ecosystem services associated with zooplankton, such as the distribution of fisheries or biogeochemical cycling [31] while also allowing the positioning of zooplankton taxa in the food web.[17][32][1]

References

  1. ^ a b c d Albuquerque, Rui; Bode, Antonio; González-Gordillo, Juan Ignacio; Duarte, Carlos M.; Queiroga, Henrique (2021). "Trophic Structure of Neuston Across Tropical and Subtropical Oceanic Provinces Assessed with Stable Isotopes". Frontiers in Marine Science. 7. doi:10.3389/fmars.2020.606088. Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
  2. ^ a b c . doi:10.1007/BF00351141 (inactive 2021-12-09). {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of December 2021 (link)
  3. ^ a b Marshall, Harold G.; Burchardt, Lubomira (2005). "Neuston: Its definition with a historical review regarding its concept and community structure". Archiv für Hydrobiologie. 164 (4): 429–448. doi:10.1127/0003-9136/2005/0164-0429.
  4. ^ Barnes, D. K.A.; Davenport, J.; Rawlinson, K. A. (2005). "Temporal Variation in Diversity and Community Structure of a Semi-Isolated Neuston Community". Biology & Environment: Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. 105 (2): 107–122. doi:10.3318/bioe.2005.105.2.107.
  5. ^ a b c Rezai, Hamid; Kabiri, Keivan; Arbi, Iman; Amini, Nafiseh (2019). "Neustonic zooplankton in the northeastern Persian Gulf". Regional Studies in Marine Science. 26: 100473. doi:10.1016/j.rsma.2018.100473. S2CID 135269465.
  6. ^ Cheng, L., Spear, L. and AINLEY, D.G. (2010) "Importance of marine insects (Heteroptera: Gerridae, Halobates spp.) as prey of eastern tropical Pacific seabirds". Marine Ornithology, 38": 91–95.
  7. ^ Zaitsev, Y. P. (1971). Marine Neustonology. ed. K. A. Vinogradov (Jerulasem: Israel program for scientific translations).
  8. ^ Holdway, P.; Maddock, L. (1983). "A comparative survey of neuston: Geographical and temporal distribution patterns". Marine Biology. 76 (3): 263–270. doi:10.1007/BF00393027. S2CID 84587026.
  9. ^ Ebberts, B. D., and Wing, B. L. (1997). "Diversity and abundance of neustonic zooplankton in the North Pacific subarctic frontal zone". U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-AFSC-70.
  10. ^ Brodeur, Richard D. (1989). "Neustonic feeding by juvenile salmonids in coastal waters of the Northeast Pacific". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 67 (8): 1995–2007. doi:10.1139/z89-284.
  11. ^ Le Fèvre, J.; Bourget, E. (1991). "Neustonic niche for cirripede larvae as a possible adaptation to long-range dispersal". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 75: 185–194. Bibcode:1991MEPS...75..185L. doi:10.3354/meps075185.
  12. ^ Padmavati, G. and Goswami, S.C. (1996). "Zooplankton distribution in neuston and water column along west coast of India from Goa to Gujarat". Indian J. Mar. Species, 25: 85–90.
  13. ^ Turner, JT (2002). "Zooplankton fecal pellets, marine snow and sinking phytoplankton blooms". Aquatic Microbial Ecology. 27: 57–102. doi:10.3354/ame027057.
  14. ^ Jónasdóttir, Sigrún Huld; Visser, André W.; Richardson, Katherine; Heath, Michael R. (2015). "Seasonal copepod lipid pump promotes carbon sequestration in the deep North Atlantic". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 112 (39): 12122–12126. doi:10.1073/pnas.1512110112. PMC 4593097. PMID 26338976.
  15. ^ Hernández-León, S.; Koppelmann, R.; Fraile-Nuez, E.; Bode, A.; Mompeán, C.; Irigoien, X.; Olivar, M. P.; Echevarría, F.; Fernández De Puelles, M. L.; González-Gordillo, J. I.; Cózar, A.; Acuña, J. L.; Agustí, S.; Duarte, C. M. (2020). "Large deep-sea zooplankton biomass mirrors primary production in the global ocean". Nature Communications. 11. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-19875-7. S2CID 227191974.
  16. ^ a b Litchman, Elena; Ohman, Mark D.; Kiørboe, Thomas (2013). "Trait-based approaches to zooplankton communities". Journal of Plankton Research. 35 (3): 473–484. doi:10.1093/plankt/fbt019.
  17. ^ a b c Benedetti, Fabio; Gasparini, Stéphane; Ayata, Sakina-Dorothée (2016). "Identifying copepod functional groups from species functional traits". Journal of Plankton Research. 38 (1): 159–166. doi:10.1093/plankt/fbv096. PMC 4722884. PMID 26811565.
  18. ^ a b Sodré, Elder de Oliveira; Bozelli, Reinaldo Luiz (2019). "How planktonic microcrustaceans respond to environment and affect ecosystem: A functional trait perspective". International Aquatic Research. 11 (3): 207–223. doi:10.1007/s40071-019-0233-x. S2CID 197594398.
  19. ^ a b Kiørboe, Thomas (2011). "How zooplankton feed: Mechanisms, traits and trade-offs". Biological Reviews. 86 (2): 311–339. doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.2010.00148.x. PMID 20682007. S2CID 25218654.
  20. ^ Neumann-Leitão, Sigrid; Melo, Pedro A. M. C.; Schwamborn, Ralf; Diaz, Xiomara F. G.; Figueiredo, Lucas G. P.; Silva, Andrea P.; Campelo, Renata P. S.; Melo Júnior, Mauro de; Melo, Nuno F. A. C.; Costa, Alejandro E. S. F.; Araújo, Moacyr; Veleda, Dóris R. A.; Moura, Rodrigo L.; Thompson, Fabiano (2018). "Zooplankton from a Reef System Under the Influence of the Amazon River Plume". Frontiers in Microbiology. 9: 355. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2018.00355. PMC 5838004. PMID 29545783.
  21. ^ Bianchi, Daniele; Mislan, K. A. S. (2016). "Global patterns of diel vertical migration times and velocities from acoustic data". Limnology and Oceanography. 61 (1): 353–364. Bibcode:2016LimOc..61..353B. doi:10.1002/lno.10219.
  22. ^ Hooff, Rian C.; Peterson, William T. (2006). "Copepod biodiversity as an indicator of changes in ocean and climate conditions of the northern California current ecosystem". Limnology and Oceanography. 51 (6): 2607–2620. Bibcode:2006LimOc..51.2607H. doi:10.4319/lo.2006.51.6.2607.
  23. ^ a b Pomerleau, Corinne; Sastri, Akash R.; Beisner, Beatrix E. (2015). "Evaluation of functional trait diversity for marine zooplankton communities in the Northeast subarctic Pacific Ocean". Journal of Plankton Research. 37 (4): 712–726. doi:10.1093/plankt/fbv045.
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External links

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