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specifying catatonia as due to schizophrenia and other mental disorders is redundant and unnecessarily specific and misleading as it is a nonspecific syndrome that can also happen in non-psychiatric medical conditions, and presence of waxy flexibility does not differentiate a cause to the catatonia
I have added section describing the symptoms, causes, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of waxy flexibility
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'''Waxy flexibility''' is one of the twelve symptoms<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Wilcox |first=James Allen |last2=Reid Duffy |first2=Pam |date=2015-12-09 |title=The Syndrome of Catatonia |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4695780/ |journal=Behavioral Sciences |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=576–588 |doi=10.3390/bs5040576 |issn=2076-328X |pmc=4695780 |pmid=26690229}}</ref> that can lead to the diagnosis of [[catatonia]]. It is a psychomotor symptom<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ungvari |first=Gabor S. |last2=Goggins |first2=William |last3=Leung |first3=Siu-Kau |last4=Lee |first4=Edwin |last5=Gerevich |first5=Jozsef |date=2009-02 |title=Schizophrenia with prominent catatonic features (‘catatonic schizophrenia’) |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0278584608003163 |journal=Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry |language=en |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=81–85 |doi=10.1016/j.pnpbp.2008.10.010}}</ref> that results in a decreased response to stimuli and a tendency to remain in an immobile posture<ref>[http://www.online-medical-dictionary.org/Waxy+Flexibility.asp?q=Waxy+Flexibility Definition – Online Medical Dictionary]</ref>.  If one were to move the arm of someone with waxy flexibility, the patient would keep that arm where it had been positioned until moved again as if positioning malleable wax. Attempts to reposition the patient are met by "slight, even resistance".<ref>Barlow, D. H., & Durand, V. Mark. (2015). Abnormal Psychology: An Integrative Approach. Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning, p. 485</ref> Waxy flexibility is also known as [[catalepsy]], catatonic rigidity, and flexibilitas cerea<ref>{{Cite web |title=APA Dictionary of Psychology |url=https://dictionary.apa.org/ |access-date=2023-03-26 |website=dictionary.apa.org |language=en}}</ref>. {{Short description|Catatonia psychomotor symptom}}
{{Short description|Catatonia psychomotor symptom}}

=== Symptoms ===
Waxy flexibility is a specific symptom of catatonia. It refers to the patient's body showing resistance to being moved. Alteration of an individual's posture is similar to bending a warm candle.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Caroff |first1=Stanley N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4cPp3Uj_xlYC&dq=waxy+flexibility&pg=PA51 |title=Catatonia: From Psychopathology to Neurobiology |last2=Mann |first2=Stephan C. |publisher=American Psychiatric Pub |year=2007 |isbn=9781585627127 |pages=51}}</ref>

Waxy flexibility often develops with other symptoms of catatonia, including:

* Immobility: showing no signs of motion<ref>{{Cite web |title=APA Dictionary of Psychology |url=https://dictionary.apa.org/ |access-date=2023-03-26 |website=dictionary.apa.org |language=en}}</ref>

* Posturing: holding in an inappropriate body position for an extended period of time<ref>{{Cite web |title=APA Dictionary of Psychology |url=https://dictionary.apa.org/ |access-date=2023-03-26 |website=dictionary.apa.org |language=en}}</ref>

* [[Mutism]]: lack or absence of speaking<ref>{{Cite web |title=APA Dictionary of Psychology |url=https://dictionary.apa.org/ |access-date=2023-03-26 |website=dictionary.apa.org |language=en}}</ref>

* Ambitendency: a pattern of incomplete motor responses in anticipation of a voluntary action<ref>{{Cite web |title=APA Dictionary of Psychology |url=https://dictionary.apa.org/ |access-date=2023-03-26 |website=dictionary.apa.org |language=en}}</ref>

* Withdrawal and refusal to eat

* Staring or no focus in eyes

* [[Negativism]]: persistent resistance to the suggestions of others or actions contrary to expectations or commands<ref>{{Cite web |title=APA Dictionary of Psychology |url=https://dictionary.apa.org/ |access-date=2023-03-26 |website=dictionary.apa.org |language=en}}</ref>

* Automatic obedience: excessive, uncritical, or mechanical compliance with the requests, suggestions, or commands of others<ref>{{Cite web |title=APA Dictionary of Psychology |url=https://dictionary.apa.org/ |access-date=2023-03-26 |website=dictionary.apa.org |language=en}}</ref>

* [[Stereotypy]]: persistent repetition of the same words, movements, or other behavior<ref>{{Cite web |title=APA Dictionary of Psychology |url=https://dictionary.apa.org/ |access-date=2023-03-26 |website=dictionary.apa.org |language=en}}</ref>

=== Causation ===
The exact cause of waxy flexibility, and catatonia, is unclear, but there are some reasonable possibilities. They are mainly believed to occur as a result of other underlying diseases.

Historically, waxy flexibility, and catatonia, have been liked to [[schizophrenia]]. A prospective and retrospective study following the DSM-3 criteria found that there was a 24.4% rate of catatonia to occur in schizophrenia patients<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Denysenko |first=Lex |last2=Sica |first2=Nicole |last3=Penders |first3=Thomas M. |last4=Philbrick |first4=Kemuel L. |last5=Walker |first5=Audrey |last6=Shaffer |first6=Scott |last7=Zimbrean |first7=Paula |last8=Freudenreich |first8=Oliver |last9=Rex |first9=Nicole |last10=Carroll |first10=Brendan T. |last11=Francis |first11=Andrew |date=2018-05 |title=Catatonia in the medically ill: Etiology, diagnosis, and treatment. The Academy of Consultation-Liaison Psychiatry Evidence-Based Medicine Subcommittee Monograph |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29697715/ |journal=Annals of Clinical Psychiatry: Official Journal of the American Academy of Clinical Psychiatrists |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=140–155 |issn=1547-3325 |pmid=29697715}}</ref>. However, recent research showed that there is a significant decrease in diagnosed catatonic subtypes among schizophrenic disorders during the past decades. This is believed to be the result of sociocultural developments and the use of neuroleptics.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Stompe |first=T. |last2=Ortwein-Swoboda |first2=G. |last3=Ritter |first3=K. |last4=Schanda |first4=H. |last5=Friedmann |first5=A. |date=2002-05-01 |title=Are we witnessing the disappearance of catatonic schizophrenia? |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010440X0216980X |journal=Comprehensive Psychiatry |language=en |volume=43 |issue=3 |pages=167–174 |doi=10.1053/comp.2002.32352 |issn=0010-440X}}</ref> Moreover, the symptoms were better to fit outside of schizophrenia, resulting in the possibility of a distinct clinical entity of catatonia or a variant of mood disorder.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Peralta |first=V. |last2=Cuesta |first2=M. J. |last3=Serrano |first3=J. F. |last4=Mata |first4=I. |date=1997 |title=The Kahlbaum syndrome: a study of its clinical validity, nosological status, and relationship with schizophrenia and mood disorder |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8980874/ |journal=Comprehensive Psychiatry |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=61–67 |doi=10.1016/s0010-440x(97)90055-9 |issn=0010-440X |pmid=8980874}}</ref>

Mood disorders such as [[bipolar disorder]] and [[depression]] are typical conditions in which catatonia manifests.<ref>American Psychiatric Association (2000) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-IV TR) 4th edition. USA: American Psychiatric Association</ref> Neurological injuries such as seizures, neoplasms, and other diseases like Parkinson's can also result in catatonia. Catatonia can also occur as a result of autoimmune, paraneoplastic, infectious, metabolic, and specific drug exposures and poisoning.<ref>{{Citation |last=Burrow |first=Jeffrey P. |title=Catatonia |date=2023 |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK430842/ |work=StatPearls |access-date=2023-03-26 |place=Treasure Island (FL) |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |pmid=28613592 |last2=Spurling |first2=Benjamin C. |last3=Marwaha |first3=Raman}}</ref> Research<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tariq |first=Maryam |last2=Afridi |first2=Muhammad Iqbal |last3=Saleem |first3=Dua |last4=Pirzada |first4=Sarmad |title=Catatonic Schizophrenia: Cases with Possible Genetic Predisposition |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6592464/ |journal=Cureus |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=e4525 |doi=10.7759/cureus.4525 |issn=2168-8184 |pmc=6592464 |pmid=31263634}}</ref> suggests that genes do play a role, as the probability would be higher if close relatives have had this symptom.

Research has linked the underlying mechanisms to the abnormalities in certain neurotransmitters, especially [[GABA]]<nowiki/>ergic (gamma-aminobutyric acid) neurotransmitters, which regulate both emotional and cognitive functions. When GABAergic neurotransmitters are disrupted, catatonic symptoms may occur.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ellul |first=Pierre |last2=Choucha |first2=Walid |date=2015 |title=Neurobiological Approach of Catatonia and Treatment Perspectives |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26733892/ |journal=Frontiers in Psychiatry |volume=6 |pages=182 |doi=10.3389/fpsyt.2015.00182 |issn=1664-0640 |pmc=4689858 |pmid=26733892}}</ref> It is theorized that catatonia patients' brains exhibit decreased GABA action.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wijemanne |first=Subhashie |last2=Jankovic |first2=Joseph |date=2015-08-01 |title=Movement disorders in catatonia |url=https://jnnp.bmj.com/content/86/8/825 |journal=Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry |language=en |volume=86 |issue=8 |pages=825–832 |doi=10.1136/jnnp-2014-309098 |issn=0022-3050 |pmid=25411548}}</ref>

=== Diagnosis ===
Waxy flexibility can be usually confirmed through observation. It generally does not require lab testing or imaging, but certain testing such as [[EEG]]<nowiki/>s, [[MRI]]<nowiki/>s, or [[CT]]<nowiki/>s can help to confirm the underlying cause.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Walther |first=Sebastian |last2=Stegmayer |first2=Katharina |date=2018-06 |title=[Diagnosis and treatment of motor phenomena in schizophrenia spectrum disorders] |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29909765/ |journal=Therapeutische Umschau. Revue Therapeutique |volume=75 |issue=1 |pages=31–36 |doi=10.1024/0040-5930/a000963 |issn=0040-5930 |pmid=29909765}}</ref> Waxy flexibility alongside two or more than two other symptoms such as stupor or negativism is enough to warrant a diagnosis of catatonia.<ref name=":0" /><ref>Barlow, D. H., & Durand, V. Mark. (2015). Abnormal Psychology: An Integrative Approach. Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning, p. 485</ref>

=== Treatment ===
The treatment for waxy flexibility requires treating the underlying disease, catatonia.

The most common treatment for catatonia is [[Benzodiazepine|benzodiazepines]]. Benzodiazepines are drugs that act on the GABA receptors and are believed to be the most effective medication for treating catatonia.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Sienaert |first=Pascal |last2=Dhossche |first2=Dirk M. |last3=Vancampfort |first3=Davy |last4=De Hert |first4=Marc |last5=Gazdag |first5=Gábor |date=2014-12-09 |title=A Clinical Review of the Treatment of Catatonia |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4260674/ |journal=Frontiers in Psychiatry |volume=5 |pages=181 |doi=10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00181 |issn=1664-0640 |pmc=4260674 |pmid=25538636}}</ref> They have properties that result in the reduction of anxiety, are relaxant in muscles, reduce excitement, and sleep inducing.<ref name=":1" /> A frequently used benzodiazepine is [[lorazepam]]. A previous study<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Narayanaswamy |first=Janardhanan C. |last2=Tibrewal |first2=Prashant |last3=Zutshi |first3=Amit |last4=Srinivasaraju |first4=Ravindra |last5=Math |first5=Suresh Bada |date=2012-05-01 |title=Clinical predictors of response to treatment in catatonia |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0163834312000138 |journal=General Hospital Psychiatry |language=en |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=312–316 |doi=10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2012.01.011 |issn=0163-8343}}</ref> has shown that 2 in 3 of the participants in a 107 people sample responded sufficiently to lorazepam.

Another common treatment is [[Electroconvulsive therapy]] (ECT).<ref>Raveendranathan, D., Narayanaswamy, J., & Reddi, S. (2012). Response rate of catatonia to electroconvulsive therapy and its clinical correlates. European Archives Of Psychiatry & Clinical Neuroscience, 262(5), 425.</ref> ECT is mainly used when the patient’s symptoms fail to respond to benzodiazepines for a week, and the underlying cause of catatonia either is unable to be treated or does not improve the symptoms after treatment.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bush |first=G. |last2=Fink |first2=M. |last3=Petrides |first3=G. |last4=Dowling |first4=F. |last5=Francis |first5=A. |date=1996-02 |title=Catatonia. II. Treatment with lorazepam and electroconvulsive therapy |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1600-0447.1996.tb09815.x |journal=Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica |language=en |volume=93 |issue=2 |pages=137–143 |doi=10.1111/j.1600-0447.1996.tb09815.x |issn=0001-690X}}</ref> ECT is effective in the resolution of both primary and secondary signs of catatonia.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rohland |first=Barbara M. |last2=Carroll |first2=Brendan T. |last3=Jacoby |first3=Robert G. |date=1993-12-01 |title=ECT in the treatment of the catatonic syndrome |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/016503279390015C |journal=Journal of Affective Disorders |language=en |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=255–261 |doi=10.1016/0165-0327(93)90015-C |issn=0165-0327}}</ref> It is also found that catatonic patients with waxy flexibility responded faster to [[electroconvulsive therapy]] compared to patients with other symptoms of catatonia.<ref>Raveendranathan, D., Narayanaswamy, J., & Reddi, S. (2012). Response rate of catatonia to electroconvulsive therapy and its clinical correlates. European Archives Of Psychiatry & Clinical Neuroscience, 262(5), 429.</ref> In spite that ECT is proven safe and effective by well-established data, there is still a stigma associated with it. Legal restrictions for its use in catatonia are also critical obstacles.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lloyd |first=Jenifer R. |last2=Silverman |first2=Eric R. |last3=Kugler |first3=Joseph L. |last4=Cooper |first4=Joseph J. |date=2020 |title=Electroconvulsive Therapy for Patients with Catatonia: Current Perspectives |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33061390/ |journal=Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment |volume=16 |pages=2191–2208 |doi=10.2147/NDT.S231573 |issn=1176-6328 |pmc=7526008 |pmid=33061390}}</ref>

=== Prevention ===
Most diagnosed patients of catatonia undergo some form of psychiatric crisis. Thus, reducing stress should be the initial action to avoid the occurrence of catatonia and waxy flexibility. Waxy flexibility is a psychomotor symptom, so attention should be dispersed on both psycho and motor and not emphasizing one but neglecting the other.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fink |first=Max |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/catatonia/69332FA8D1721CEEDEF9396BCC702E8A |title=Catatonia: A Clinician's Guide to Diagnosis and Treatment |last2=Taylor |first2=Michael Alan |date=2003 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-03236-0 |location=Cambridge}}</ref> It is advised to stay in a bright, clean environment while having access to mental support.

{{Infobox medical condition (new)
{{Infobox medical condition (new)
| name = Waxy flexibility
| name = Waxy flexibility
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'''Waxy flexibility''' is a [[Psychomotor retardation|psychomotor symptom]] of [[Catatonia|catatonia]]<ref name="pmid18992297">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ungvari GS, Goggins W, Leung SK, Lee E, Gerevich J |title=Schizophrenia with prominent catatonic features ('catatonic schizophrenia') III. Latent class analysis of the catatonic syndrome |journal=Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=81–5 |date=February 2009 |pmid=18992297 |doi=10.1016/j.pnpbp.2008.10.010 |s2cid=24678086 }}</ref> which leads to a decreased response to stimuli and a tendency to remain in an immobile posture.<ref>[http://www.online-medical-dictionary.org/Waxy+Flexibility.asp?q=Waxy+Flexibility Definition – Online Medical Dictionary]</ref> Attempts to reposition the patient are met by "slight, even resistance", and after being repositioned, the patient will typically remain in the new position.<ref>Barlow, D. H., & Durand, V. Mark. (2015). Abnormal Psychology: An Integrative Approach. Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning, p. 485</ref> Waxy flexibility rarely occurs in cases of delirium.<ref>Regal, P. (2017). Malignant Catatonia Versus Delirium. American Journal of Medicine, 130(1), e33. doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2016.07.033</ref> The presence of waxy flexibility along with at least two other catatonic symptoms such as [[stupor]] or [[Catatonic stupor|negativism]] are enough to warrant a diagnosis of [[catatonia]].<ref>Barlow, D. H., & Durand, V. Mark. (2015). Abnormal Psychology: An Integrative Approach. Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning, p. 485</ref>

If one were to move the arm of someone with waxy flexibility, the patient would keep that arm where it had been positioned until moved again, as if positioning malleable wax. Further alteration of an individual's posture is similar to bending a candle.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Catatonia: From Psychopathology to Neurobiology|last1 = Caroff|first1 = Stanley N.|publisher = American Psychiatric Pub|year = 2007|isbn = 9781585627127|pages = 51|first2 = Stephan C.|last2 = Mann|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=4cPp3Uj_xlYC&dq=waxy+flexibility&pg=PA51}}</ref> Although waxy flexibility has historically been linked to schizophrenia, there are also other disorders which it may be associated with, such as mood disorders with [[catatonic]] behaviour.<ref>American Psychiatric Association (2000) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-IV TR) 4th edition. USA: American Psychiatric Association</ref>


[[Electroconvulsive therapy]] is often used as a treatment for catatonia.<ref>Raveendranathan, D., Narayanaswamy, J., & Reddi, S. (2012). Response rate of catatonia to electroconvulsive therapy and its clinical correlates. European Archives Of Psychiatry & Clinical Neuroscience, 262(5), 425.</ref> A study has found that catatonic patients with waxy flexibility responded faster to [[electroconvulsive therapy]] than patients with other symptoms of catatonia.<ref>Raveendranathan, D., Narayanaswamy, J., & Reddi, S. (2012). Response rate of catatonia to electroconvulsive therapy and its clinical correlates. European Archives Of Psychiatry & Clinical Neuroscience, 262(5), 429.</ref>


==See also==
==See also==

Revision as of 23:27, 26 March 2023

Waxy flexibility is one of the twelve symptoms[1] that can lead to the diagnosis of catatonia. It is a psychomotor symptom[2] that results in a decreased response to stimuli and a tendency to remain in an immobile posture[3].  If one were to move the arm of someone with waxy flexibility, the patient would keep that arm where it had been positioned until moved again as if positioning malleable wax. Attempts to reposition the patient are met by "slight, even resistance".[4] Waxy flexibility is also known as catalepsy, catatonic rigidity, and flexibilitas cerea[5].

Symptoms

Waxy flexibility is a specific symptom of catatonia. It refers to the patient's body showing resistance to being moved. Alteration of an individual's posture is similar to bending a warm candle.[6]

Waxy flexibility often develops with other symptoms of catatonia, including:

  • Immobility: showing no signs of motion[7]
  • Posturing: holding in an inappropriate body position for an extended period of time[8]
  • Ambitendency: a pattern of incomplete motor responses in anticipation of a voluntary action[10]
  • Withdrawal and refusal to eat
  • Staring or no focus in eyes
  • Negativism: persistent resistance to the suggestions of others or actions contrary to expectations or commands[11]
  • Automatic obedience: excessive, uncritical, or mechanical compliance with the requests, suggestions, or commands of others[12]
  • Stereotypy: persistent repetition of the same words, movements, or other behavior[13]

Causation

The exact cause of waxy flexibility, and catatonia, is unclear, but there are some reasonable possibilities. They are mainly believed to occur as a result of other underlying diseases.

Historically, waxy flexibility, and catatonia, have been liked to schizophrenia. A prospective and retrospective study following the DSM-3 criteria found that there was a 24.4% rate of catatonia to occur in schizophrenia patients[14]. However, recent research showed that there is a significant decrease in diagnosed catatonic subtypes among schizophrenic disorders during the past decades. This is believed to be the result of sociocultural developments and the use of neuroleptics.[15] Moreover, the symptoms were better to fit outside of schizophrenia, resulting in the possibility of a distinct clinical entity of catatonia or a variant of mood disorder.[16]

Mood disorders such as bipolar disorder and depression are typical conditions in which catatonia manifests.[17] Neurological injuries such as seizures, neoplasms, and other diseases like Parkinson's can also result in catatonia. Catatonia can also occur as a result of autoimmune, paraneoplastic, infectious, metabolic, and specific drug exposures and poisoning.[18] Research[19] suggests that genes do play a role, as the probability would be higher if close relatives have had this symptom.

Research has linked the underlying mechanisms to the abnormalities in certain neurotransmitters, especially GABAergic (gamma-aminobutyric acid) neurotransmitters, which regulate both emotional and cognitive functions. When GABAergic neurotransmitters are disrupted, catatonic symptoms may occur.[20] It is theorized that catatonia patients' brains exhibit decreased GABA action.[21]

Diagnosis

Waxy flexibility can be usually confirmed through observation. It generally does not require lab testing or imaging, but certain testing such as EEGs, MRIs, or CTs can help to confirm the underlying cause.[22] Waxy flexibility alongside two or more than two other symptoms such as stupor or negativism is enough to warrant a diagnosis of catatonia.[1][23]

Treatment

The treatment for waxy flexibility requires treating the underlying disease, catatonia.

The most common treatment for catatonia is benzodiazepines. Benzodiazepines are drugs that act on the GABA receptors and are believed to be the most effective medication for treating catatonia.[24] They have properties that result in the reduction of anxiety, are relaxant in muscles, reduce excitement, and sleep inducing.[24] A frequently used benzodiazepine is lorazepam. A previous study[25] has shown that 2 in 3 of the participants in a 107 people sample responded sufficiently to lorazepam.

Another common treatment is Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT).[26] ECT is mainly used when the patient’s symptoms fail to respond to benzodiazepines for a week, and the underlying cause of catatonia either is unable to be treated or does not improve the symptoms after treatment.[27] ECT is effective in the resolution of both primary and secondary signs of catatonia.[28] It is also found that catatonic patients with waxy flexibility responded faster to electroconvulsive therapy compared to patients with other symptoms of catatonia.[29] In spite that ECT is proven safe and effective by well-established data, there is still a stigma associated with it. Legal restrictions for its use in catatonia are also critical obstacles.[30]

Prevention

Most diagnosed patients of catatonia undergo some form of psychiatric crisis. Thus, reducing stress should be the initial action to avoid the occurrence of catatonia and waxy flexibility. Waxy flexibility is a psychomotor symptom, so attention should be dispersed on both psycho and motor and not emphasizing one but neglecting the other.[31] It is advised to stay in a bright, clean environment while having access to mental support.

Waxy flexibility
SpecialtyPsychiatry


See also

References

  1. ^ a b Wilcox, James Allen; Reid Duffy, Pam (2015-12-09). "The Syndrome of Catatonia". Behavioral Sciences. 5 (4): 576–588. doi:10.3390/bs5040576. ISSN 2076-328X. PMC 4695780. PMID 26690229.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  2. ^ Ungvari, Gabor S.; Goggins, William; Leung, Siu-Kau; Lee, Edwin; Gerevich, Jozsef (2009-02). "Schizophrenia with prominent catatonic features ('catatonic schizophrenia')". Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry. 33 (1): 81–85. doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2008.10.010. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  3. ^ Definition – Online Medical Dictionary
  4. ^ Barlow, D. H., & Durand, V. Mark. (2015). Abnormal Psychology: An Integrative Approach. Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning, p. 485
  5. ^ "APA Dictionary of Psychology". dictionary.apa.org. Retrieved 2023-03-26.
  6. ^ Caroff, Stanley N.; Mann, Stephan C. (2007). Catatonia: From Psychopathology to Neurobiology. American Psychiatric Pub. p. 51. ISBN 9781585627127.
  7. ^ "APA Dictionary of Psychology". dictionary.apa.org. Retrieved 2023-03-26.
  8. ^ "APA Dictionary of Psychology". dictionary.apa.org. Retrieved 2023-03-26.
  9. ^ "APA Dictionary of Psychology". dictionary.apa.org. Retrieved 2023-03-26.
  10. ^ "APA Dictionary of Psychology". dictionary.apa.org. Retrieved 2023-03-26.
  11. ^ "APA Dictionary of Psychology". dictionary.apa.org. Retrieved 2023-03-26.
  12. ^ "APA Dictionary of Psychology". dictionary.apa.org. Retrieved 2023-03-26.
  13. ^ "APA Dictionary of Psychology". dictionary.apa.org. Retrieved 2023-03-26.
  14. ^ Denysenko, Lex; Sica, Nicole; Penders, Thomas M.; Philbrick, Kemuel L.; Walker, Audrey; Shaffer, Scott; Zimbrean, Paula; Freudenreich, Oliver; Rex, Nicole; Carroll, Brendan T.; Francis, Andrew (2018-05). "Catatonia in the medically ill: Etiology, diagnosis, and treatment. The Academy of Consultation-Liaison Psychiatry Evidence-Based Medicine Subcommittee Monograph". Annals of Clinical Psychiatry: Official Journal of the American Academy of Clinical Psychiatrists. 30 (2): 140–155. ISSN 1547-3325. PMID 29697715. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  15. ^ Stompe, T.; Ortwein-Swoboda, G.; Ritter, K.; Schanda, H.; Friedmann, A. (2002-05-01). "Are we witnessing the disappearance of catatonic schizophrenia?". Comprehensive Psychiatry. 43 (3): 167–174. doi:10.1053/comp.2002.32352. ISSN 0010-440X.
  16. ^ Peralta, V.; Cuesta, M. J.; Serrano, J. F.; Mata, I. (1997). "The Kahlbaum syndrome: a study of its clinical validity, nosological status, and relationship with schizophrenia and mood disorder". Comprehensive Psychiatry. 38 (1): 61–67. doi:10.1016/s0010-440x(97)90055-9. ISSN 0010-440X. PMID 8980874.
  17. ^ American Psychiatric Association (2000) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-IV TR) 4th edition. USA: American Psychiatric Association
  18. ^ Burrow, Jeffrey P.; Spurling, Benjamin C.; Marwaha, Raman (2023), "Catatonia", StatPearls, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing, PMID 28613592, retrieved 2023-03-26
  19. ^ Tariq, Maryam; Afridi, Muhammad Iqbal; Saleem, Dua; Pirzada, Sarmad. "Catatonic Schizophrenia: Cases with Possible Genetic Predisposition". Cureus. 11 (4): e4525. doi:10.7759/cureus.4525. ISSN 2168-8184. PMC 6592464. PMID 31263634.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
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