Campanian Ignimbrite eruption: Difference between revisions

Coordinates: 40°49′37″N 14°08′20″E / 40.827°N 14.139°E / 40.827; 14.139
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ultra-plinian is questionable but certainly plinian
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→‎Eruptive sequence: expanding the article, rewrite eruptive sequence based on more comprehensive stratigraphic correlation
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The '''Campanian Ignimbrite eruption''' (CI, also CI Super-eruption) was a major volcanic eruption in the [[Mediterranean]] during the late [[Quaternary]], classified&nbsp;7 on the [[Volcanic Explosivity Index]] (VEI).<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Silleni |first1=Aurora |last2=Giordano |first2=Guido |last3=Isaia |first3=Roberto |last4=Ort |first4=Michael H. |year=2020 |title=The magnitude of the 39.8&nbsp;ka Campanian Ignimbrite eruption, Italy: Method, uncertainties, and errors |journal=Frontiers in Earth Science |volume=8 |language=English |doi=10.3389/feart.2020.543399 |doi-access=free |s2cid=224274557 |issn=2296-6463 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mastrolorenzo |first1=Giuseppe |last2=Palladino |first2=Danilo M. |last3=Pappalardo |first3=Lucia |last4=Rossano |first4=Sergio |date=5 March 2016 |title=Probabilistic-Numerical assessment of pyroclastic current hazard at Campi Flegrei and Naples city: Multi-VEI scenarios as a tool for full-scale risk management – VEI&nbsp;7 Campanian Ignimbrite extreme event |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=12 |issue=10 |pages=e0185756 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0185756 |pmid=29020018 |pmc=5636126 |bibcode=2017PLoSO..1285756M |arxiv=1603.01747|doi-access=free }}</ref> The event has been attributed to the Archiflegreo volcano, the {{convert|13|km|mi|adj=mid|-wide}} caldera of the [[Phlegraean Fields]], located {{convert|20|km|mi|abbr=on}} west of [[Mount Vesuvius]] under the western outskirts of the city of [[Naples]] and the [[Gulf of Pozzuoli]], Italy.<ref>{{cite web |title=Campi Flegrei (Phlegrean Fields) volcano |website=Volcano Discovery |url=https://www.volcanodiscovery.com/campi-flegrei.html |access-date=5 September 2016}}</ref> Estimates of the date and magnitude of the eruption(s), and the amount of ejected material have varied considerably during several centuries the site has been studied. This applies to most significant volcanic events that originated in the [[Campanian volcanic arc|Campanian Plain]], as it is one of the most complex volcanic structures in the world. However, continued research, advancing methods, and accumulation of volcanological, geochronological, and geochemical data have improved the dates' accuracy.<ref>{{cite journal |last=de&nbsp;Vivo |first=B. |year=2001 |title=New constraints on the pyroclastic eruptive history of the Campanian volcanic plain (Italy) |volume=73 |issue=1–3 |journal=Mineralogy and Petrology |pages=47–65 |s2cid=129762185 |bibcode=2001MinPe..73...47D |doi=10.1007/s007100170010}}</ref>
The '''Campanian Ignimbrite eruption''' (CI, also CI Super-eruption) was a major volcanic eruption in the [[Mediterranean]] during the late [[Quaternary]], classified&nbsp;7 on the [[Volcanic Explosivity Index]] (VEI).<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Silleni |first1=Aurora |last2=Giordano |first2=Guido |last3=Isaia |first3=Roberto |last4=Ort |first4=Michael H. |year=2020 |title=The magnitude of the 39.8&nbsp;ka Campanian Ignimbrite eruption, Italy: Method, uncertainties, and errors |journal=Frontiers in Earth Science |volume=8 |language=English |doi=10.3389/feart.2020.543399 |doi-access=free |s2cid=224274557 |issn=2296-6463 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mastrolorenzo |first1=Giuseppe |last2=Palladino |first2=Danilo M. |last3=Pappalardo |first3=Lucia |last4=Rossano |first4=Sergio |date=5 March 2016 |title=Probabilistic-Numerical assessment of pyroclastic current hazard at Campi Flegrei and Naples city: Multi-VEI scenarios as a tool for full-scale risk management – VEI&nbsp;7 Campanian Ignimbrite extreme event |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=12 |issue=10 |pages=e0185756 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0185756 |pmid=29020018 |pmc=5636126 |bibcode=2017PLoSO..1285756M |arxiv=1603.01747|doi-access=free }}</ref> The event has been attributed to the Archiflegreo volcano, the {{convert|12x15|km|mi|adj=mid|-wide}} caldera of the [[Phlegraean Fields]], located {{convert|20|km|mi|abbr=on}} west of [[Mount Vesuvius]] under the western outskirts of the city of [[Naples]] and the [[Gulf of Pozzuoli]], Italy.<ref>{{cite web |title=Campi Flegrei (Phlegrean Fields) volcano |website=Volcano Discovery |url=https://www.volcanodiscovery.com/campi-flegrei.html |access-date=5 September 2016}}</ref> Estimates of the date and magnitude of the eruption(s), and the amount of ejected material have varied considerably during several centuries the site has been studied. This applies to most significant volcanic events that originated in the [[Campanian volcanic arc|Campanian Plain]], as it is one of the most complex volcanic structures in the world. However, continued research, advancing methods, and accumulation of volcanological, geochronological, and geochemical data have improved the dates' accuracy.<ref>{{cite journal |last=de&nbsp;Vivo |first=B. |year=2001 |title=New constraints on the pyroclastic eruptive history of the Campanian volcanic plain (Italy) |volume=73 |issue=1–3 |journal=Mineralogy and Petrology |pages=47–65 |s2cid=129762185 |bibcode=2001MinPe..73...47D |doi=10.1007/s007100170010}}</ref>


The most recent results by [[Radiocarbon dating|radiocarbon]] and [[argon–argon dating]] are, respectively, 39 705 to 39 220 calendar year [[Before Present|BP]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Muscheler |first=Raimund |last2=Adolphi |first2=Florian |last3=Heaton |first3=Timothy J |last4=Bronk Ramsey |first4=Christopher |last5=Svensson |first5=Anders |last6=van der Plicht |first6=Johannes |last7=Reimer |first7=Paula J |date=2020-08-01 |title=Testing and Improving the IntCal20 Calibration Curve with Independent Records |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0033822220000545/type/journal_article |journal=Radiocarbon |language=en |volume=62 |issue=4 |pages=1079–1094 |doi=10.1017/RDC.2020.54 |issn=0033-8222}}</ref> and {{Val|39850|140}} year BP.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Giaccio |first=Biagio |last2=Hajdas |first2=Irka |last3=Isaia |first3=Roberto |last4=Deino |first4=Alan |last5=Nomade |first5=Sebastien |date=2017-04-06 |title=High-precision 14C and 40Ar/39Ar dating of the Campanian Ignimbrite (Y-5) reconciles the time-scales of climatic-cultural processes at 40 ka |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/srep45940 |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=45940 |doi=10.1038/srep45940 |issn=2045-2322}}</ref> The estimated eruptive volume in [[dense-rock equivalent]] (DRE) is in the range of {{convert|181-265|km3|mi3|abbr=on}}<ref name=":0" /> and tephra dispersed over an area of around {{convert|3700000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}. The accuracy of these numbers is of significance for marine geologists, climatologists, palaeontologists, paleo-anthropologists and researchers of related fields as the event coincides with a number of global and local phenomena, such as widespread discontinuities in archaeological sequences, climatic oscillations and biocultural modifications.<ref>{{cite web |title=Campanian Ignimbrite volcanism, climate, and the final decline of the Neanderthals |date= |publisher=University of California – Berkeley |url=http://seismo.berkeley.edu/~manga/blacketal2015.pdf |access-date=September 20, 2016}}</ref>
The most recent results by [[Radiocarbon dating|radiocarbon]] and [[argon–argon dating]] are, respectively, 39 705 to 39 220 calendar year [[Before Present|BP]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Muscheler |first=Raimund |last2=Adolphi |first2=Florian |last3=Heaton |first3=Timothy J |last4=Bronk Ramsey |first4=Christopher |last5=Svensson |first5=Anders |last6=van der Plicht |first6=Johannes |last7=Reimer |first7=Paula J |date=2020-08-01 |title=Testing and Improving the IntCal20 Calibration Curve with Independent Records |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0033822220000545/type/journal_article |journal=Radiocarbon |language=en |volume=62 |issue=4 |pages=1079–1094 |doi=10.1017/RDC.2020.54 |issn=0033-8222}}</ref> and {{Val|39850|140}} year BP.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Giaccio |first=Biagio |last2=Hajdas |first2=Irka |last3=Isaia |first3=Roberto |last4=Deino |first4=Alan |last5=Nomade |first5=Sebastien |date=2017-04-06 |title=High-precision 14C and 40Ar/39Ar dating of the Campanian Ignimbrite (Y-5) reconciles the time-scales of climatic-cultural processes at 40 ka |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/srep45940 |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=45940 |doi=10.1038/srep45940 |issn=2045-2322}}</ref> The estimated eruptive volume in [[dense-rock equivalent]] (DRE) is in the range of {{convert|181-265|km3|mi3|abbr=on}},<ref name=":0" /> and tephra has dispersed over an area of around {{convert|3000000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}, commonly referred to as the [[Marker horizon|ash horizon]] Y-5.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Pyle |first=David M. |last2=Ricketts |first2=Graham D. |last3=Margari |first3=Vasiliki |last4=van Andel |first4=Tjeerd H. |last5=Sinitsyn |first5=Andrei A. |last6=Praslov |first6=Nicolai D. |last7=Lisitsyn |first7=Sergei |date=2006-11-01 |title=Wide dispersal and deposition of distal tephra during the Pleistocene ‘Campanian Ignimbrite/Y5’ eruption, Italy |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277379106001934 |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews |language=en |volume=25 |issue=21 |pages=2713–2728 |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2006.06.008 |issn=0277-3791}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{cite journal |last1=Marti |first1=Alejandro |last2=Folch |first2=Arnau |last3=Costa |first3=Antonio |last4=Engwell |first4=Samantha |date=17 February 2016 |title=Reconstructing the plinian and co-ignimbrite sources of large volcanic eruptions: A novel approach for the Campanian Ignimbrite |url=http://insidehpc.com/2016/02/simulation-reconstructs-in-detail-the-volcanic-super-eruption-which-slowed-the-advance-of-modern-human-in-europe/ |journal=Scientific Reports |publisher=Springer Nature |volume=6 |issue= |pages=21220 |bibcode=2016NatSR...621220M |doi=10.1038/srep21220 |pmc=4756320 |pmid=26883449 |access-date=20 September 2016}}</ref> The accuracy of these numbers is of significance for marine geologists, climatologists, palaeontologists, paleo-anthropologists and researchers of related fields as the event coincides with a number of global and local phenomena, such as widespread discontinuities in archaeological sequences, climatic oscillations and biocultural modifications.<ref>{{cite web |title=Campanian Ignimbrite volcanism, climate, and the final decline of the Neanderthals |date= |publisher=University of California – Berkeley |url=http://seismo.berkeley.edu/~manga/blacketal2015.pdf |access-date=September 20, 2016}}</ref>


==Etymology==
==Etymology==
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{{main|Phlegraean Fields}}
{{main|Phlegraean Fields}}
[[File:Solfatara - Pozzuoli - Campania - Italy - July 11th 2013 - 20.jpg|thumb| right|[[Solfatara]] Pozzuoli ]]
[[File:Solfatara - Pozzuoli - Campania - Italy - July 11th 2013 - 20.jpg|thumb| right|[[Solfatara]] Pozzuoli ]]
The [[Phlegraean Fields]] ({{lang-it|Campi Flegrei}} "burning fields"{{efn|The term ''Campi Flegrei'' &nbsp; is mixed Latin and ancient Greek, indicating that the volcanic nature of the area has been well known in antiquity.}})<ref>{{cite web |title=flegreo |website=Garzanti Linguistica |date= |url=http://www.garzantilinguistica.it/ricerca/?q=flegreo |access-date=20 September 2016}}</ref> caldera is a nested structure with a diameter of around {{convert|13|km|mi|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Campi Flegrei volcano, Campania |publisher=SRV |date= |url=http://srv1.rm.ingv.it/srv1/srv/study-sites/campi-flegrei/campi-flegrei-volcano-campania |access-date=20 September 2016}}</ref> It is composed of the older Campanian Ignimbrite caldera, the younger Neapolitan Yellow [[Tuff]] caldera and widely scattered sub-aerial and submarine vents from which the most recent eruptions have originated. The Fields sit upon a [[Pliocene]] – Quaternary Extensional domain with faults, that run North-East to South-West and North-West to South-East from the margin of the [[Apennine Mountains|Apennine]] [[Fold and thrust belt|thrust belt]]. The sequence of deformation has been subdivided into three periods.<ref>{{cite web |title=Phlegrean Fields, Italy |website=Volcano World |publisher=[[Oregon State University]] |date= |url=http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/vwdocs/volc_images/europe_west_asia/phlegrean.html |access-date=20 September 2016}}</ref>
The [[Phlegraean Fields]] ({{lang-it|Campi Flegrei}} "burning fields"{{efn|The term ''Campi Flegrei'' &nbsp; is mixed Latin and ancient Greek, indicating that the volcanic nature of the area has been well known in antiquity.}})<ref>{{cite web |title=flegreo |website=Garzanti Linguistica |date= |url=http://www.garzantilinguistica.it/ricerca/?q=flegreo |access-date=20 September 2016}}</ref> caldera is a nested structure with a diameter of around {{convert|12x15|km|mi|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Campi Flegrei volcano, Campania |publisher=SRV |date= |url=http://srv1.rm.ingv.it/srv1/srv/study-sites/campi-flegrei/campi-flegrei-volcano-campania |access-date=20 September 2016}}</ref> It is composed of the older Campanian Ignimbrite caldera, the younger Neapolitan Yellow [[Tuff]] caldera and widely scattered sub-aerial and submarine vents from which the most recent eruptions have originated. The Fields sit upon a [[Pliocene]] – Quaternary Extensional domain with faults, that run North-East to South-West and North-West to South-East from the margin of the [[Apennine Mountains|Apennine]] [[Fold and thrust belt|thrust belt]]. The sequence of deformation has been subdivided into three periods.<ref>{{cite web |title=Phlegrean Fields, Italy |website=Volcano World |publisher=[[Oregon State University]] |date= |url=http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/vwdocs/volc_images/europe_west_asia/phlegrean.html |access-date=20 September 2016}}</ref>


===Phlegraean Periods===
===Phlegraean Periods===
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==Eruptive sequence==
==Eruptive sequence==
[[File:Plinian Eruption-numbers.svg|thumb|Diagram of a [[Plinian eruption]]. (key: 1.&nbsp;[[Ash plume]]; 2.&nbsp;[[Magma conduit]]; 3.&nbsp;[[Volcanic ash]] rain; 4.&nbsp;Layers of [[lava]] and [[volcanic ash|ash]]; 5.&nbsp;[[Stratum]]; 6.&nbsp;[[Magma chamber]])]]
[[File:Plinian Eruption-numbers.svg|thumb|Diagram of a [[Plinian eruption]]. (key: 1.&nbsp;[[Ash plume]]; 2.&nbsp;[[Magma conduit]]; 3.&nbsp;[[Volcanic ash]] rain; 4.&nbsp;Layers of [[lava]] and [[volcanic ash|ash]]; 5.&nbsp;[[Stratum]]; 6.&nbsp;[[Magma chamber]])]]
The CI eruption has been interpreted as the largest volcanic eruption of the past 200,000&nbsp;years in Europe.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ancient Super-Eruption Larger Than Thought ... about 39,000 years ago, it experienced the largest volcanic eruption that Europe has seen in the last 200,000 years |newspaper=Livescience.com |date=June 21, 2012 |url=http://www.livescience.com/31560-ancient-super-eruption-larger.html |access-date=24 September 2016}}</ref> [[Tephra]] deposits indicate two distinct plume forming phases, a [[Plinian eruption|Plinian]] and a [[Ignimbrite|co-ignimbrite]], characterized by multiple [[caldera]]-forming eruptions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Marti |first1=Alejandro |last2=Folch |first2=Arnau |last3=Costa |first3=Antonio |last4=Engwell |first4=Samantha |date=17 February 2016 |title=Reconstructing the plinian and co-ignimbrite sources of large volcanic eruptions: A novel approach for the Campanian Ignimbrite |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=6 |issue= |pages=21220 |publisher=Springer Nature |bibcode=2016NatSR...621220M |doi=10.1038/srep21220 |pmid=26883449 |pmc=4756320 |url=http://insidehpc.com/2016/02/simulation-reconstructs-in-detail-the-volcanic-super-eruption-which-slowed-the-advance-of-modern-human-in-europe/ |access-date=20 September 2016}}</ref>
The CI eruption has been interpreted as the largest volcanic eruption of the past 200,000&nbsp;years in Europe.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ancient Super-Eruption Larger Than Thought ... about 39,000 years ago, it experienced the largest volcanic eruption that Europe has seen in the last 200,000 years |newspaper=Livescience.com |date=June 21, 2012 |url=http://www.livescience.com/31560-ancient-super-eruption-larger.html |access-date=24 September 2016}}</ref> The eruption started with an intense Plinian phase, succeeded by a sequence of voluminous pyroclastic density currents with co-ignimbrite plumes.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Smith |first=Victoria C. |last2=Isaia |first2=Roberto |last3=Engwell |first3=Sam L. |last4=Albert |first4=Paul. G. |date=2016-05-26 |title=Tephra dispersal during the Campanian Ignimbrite (Italy) eruption: implications for ultra-distal ash transport during the large caldera-forming eruption |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00445-016-1037-0 |journal=Bulletin of Volcanology |volume=78 |issue=6 |doi=10.1007/s00445-016-1037-0 |issn=0258-8900}}</ref> Both phases generated high eruptive columns, culminating in the widespread deposition of the Y-5 layer.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Engwell |first=S. L. |last2=Sparks |first2=R. S. J. |last3=Carey |first3=S. |date=2014-01-06 |title=Physical characteristics of tephra layers in the deep sea realm: the Campanian Ignimbrite eruption |url=https://www.lyellcollection.org/doi/10.1144/SP398.7 |journal=Geological Society, London, Special Publications |language=en |volume=398 |issue=1 |pages=47–64 |doi=10.1144/SP398.7 |issn=0305-8719}}</ref>


===Plinian phase===
===Plinian phase===
The distribution of basal Plinian fallout strongly suggests that the onset of the eruption occurred in the northeastern sector of Campi Flegrei.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Scarpati |first=Claudio |last2=Perrotta |first2=Annamaria |date=2016-03-09 |title=Stratigraphy and physical parameters of the Plinian phase of the Campanian Ignimbrite eruption |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/b31331.1 |journal=Geological Society of America Bulletin |volume=128 |issue=7-8 |pages=1147–1159 |doi=10.1130/b31331.1 |issn=0016-7606}}</ref> This phase is supplied by the uppermost, most evolved trachytic magma of the chamber.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Fedele |first=Lorenzo |last2=Scarpati |first2=Claudio |last3=Lanphere |first3=Marvin |last4=Melluso |first4=Leone |last5=Morra |first5=Vincenzo |last6=Perrotta |first6=Annamaria |last7=Ricci |first7=Gennaro |date=2008-10-01 |title=The Breccia Museo formation, Campi Flegrei, southern Italy: geochronology, chemostratigraphy and relationship with the Campanian Ignimbrite eruption |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00445-008-0197-y |journal=Bulletin of Volcanology |language=en |volume=70 |issue=10 |pages=1189–1219 |doi=10.1007/s00445-008-0197-y |issn=1432-0819}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Fedele |first=L. |last2=Scarpati |first2=C. |last3=Sparice |first3=D. |last4=Perrotta |first4=A. |last5=Laiena |first5=F. |date=2016-09-16 |title=A chemostratigraphic study of the Campanian Ignimbrite eruption (Campi Flegrei, Italy): Insights on magma chamber withdrawal and deposit accumulation as revealed by compositionally zoned stratigraphic and facies framework |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S037702731630124X |journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research |language=en |volume=324 |pages=105–117 |doi=10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2016.05.019}}</ref>
Evidence shows that the eruption was a single event lasting 2 to 4&nbsp;days.<ref>{{cite web |title=Campi Flegrei |publisher=University Roma |date= |url=http://vulcan.fis.uniroma3.it/Campi_Flegrei/Campi_flegrei.html |access-date=20 September 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161225013939/http://vulcan.fis.uniroma3.it/Campi_Flegrei/Campi_flegrei.html |archive-date=25 December 2016}}</ref> It was triggered by abrupt changes in composition, properties and physical state in the melt or overpressure in the magma chamber. The eruption started with [[phreatomagmatic]] explosions, followed by a Plinian eruption column, fed by simultaneous extraction of two magma layers. The resulting ash plume is estimated to have been {{convert|70|km|mi|abbr=on}} high. As gradually an unstable pulsating column formed, fed only by the most evolved magma due to upward migration of the fragmentation surface, reduced magma eruption rate, and/or activation of fractures, the Plinian phase ended. Emissions consisted of [[pumice]] and dark colored volcanic rock ([[scoria]]). The [[mafic]] minerals cover smaller areas than the more acidic members, also indicating a decrease of explosivity over the course of the eruption. The [[eruption column]] caused a large pumice-fall deposit to the east of the source area.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Scarpati |first1=Claudio |last2=Perrotta |first2=Annamaria |year=2016 |doi=10.1130/B31331.1 |title=Stratigraphy and physical parameters of the Plinian phase of the Campanian Ignimbrite eruption |journal=Geological Society of America Bulletin |volume=128 |issue=7–8 |pages=1147 |bibcode=2016GSAB..128.1147S |url=ftp://rock.geosociety.org/pub/reposit/2016/2016059.pdf |access-date=20 September 2016}}{{Dead link |date=July 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} <!-- |publisher=Università di Napoli --></ref>


A detailed attempt to reconstruct this phase through direct field measurements recognized the evolution of the Plinian column through five units of fall deposits. The eruption first reached a column height of {{convert|29|km|mi|abbr=on}} and then peaked at {{convert|39|km|mi|abbr=on}}, and during the latest stage, the top of the plume waned to {{convert|26|km|mi|abbr=on}}. The entire Plinian eruption lasted about 20 hours and emitted {{convert|7.8|km3|mi3|abbr=on}} of magma.<ref name=":5" /> Another attempt at reconstruction by numerical simulation shows a different Plinian process. The eruptive column rose to {{convert|44|km|mi|abbr=on}}, and the entire phase was completed within 4 hours with a magma volume of {{convert|23|km3|mi3|abbr=on}}.<ref name=":2" />
=== Pyroclastic density currents ===
⚫
The initial eruption was followed by a caldera collapse and a large [[pyroclastic flow]], fed by the upper magma layer, a single flow unit with lateral variations in both [[pumice]] and [[Lithic fragment (geology)|lithic]] fragments, that covered an area of {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}. Currents that moved toward the North and the South overflowed {{convert|1000|m|ft|adj=mid|-high}} mountain ranges and crossed the Gulf of Naples over the sea, extinguishing all life within a radius of about {{convert|100|km|mi|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite press release |author1=Hoffecker |display-authors=etal |date= |title=From the Bay of Naples to the River Don: the Campanian Ignimbrite eruption and the Middle to Upper Paleolithic transition in Eastern Europe |publisher=Journal of Human Evolution |website=archeo.ru |url=http://www.archeo.ru/struktura-1/otdel-arheologii-paleolita/pdf/Hoffecker_al_JournalofHumanEvolution-55-2008.pdf |access-date=20 September 2016}}{{full citation|date=April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fedele |first1=Francesco G. |last2=Giaccio |first2=Biagio |last3=Isaia |first3=Roberto |last4=Orsi |first4=Giovanni |year=2002 |title=Ecosystem impact of the Campanian Ignimbrite eruption in Late Pleistocene Europe |journal=Quaternary Research |volume=57 |issue=3 |pages=420–424 |doi=10.1006/qres.2002.2331 |bibcode=2002QuRes..57..420F |s2cid=129476314 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223543032 |access-date=5 September 2016}}</ref> Textural and morphological features of the deposits, and areal distribution suggests that the eruption was of the type of highly expanded low-temperature pyroclastic cloud.


Plinian tephra is present in deposits to distances of at least {{convert|1400|km|mi|abbr=on}} and between {{convert|130|km|mi|abbr=on}} and {{convert|900|km|mi|abbr=on}} constitutes 35–45% of the Y-5 deposit.<ref name=":4" />
The pyroclastic sequence from base to top:
* densely welded ignimbrite and lithic-rich [[breccia]]s
* sintered ignimbrite, low-grade ignimbrite and lithic-rich breccia
* lithic-rich breccia and spatter agglutinate (see [[Volcanic cone]])
* low-grade ignimbrite<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barberi |first1=F. |last2=Innocenti |first2=F. |last3=Lirer |first3=L. |last4=Munno |first4=R. |last5=Pescatore |first5=T. |last6=Santacroce |first6=R. |year=1978 |title=The Campanian Ignimbrite: A major prehistoric eruption in the Neapolitan area (Italy) |journal=Bulletin Volcanologique |volume=41 |issue = 1 |pages=10 |doi=10.1007/BF02597680 |bibcode=1978BVol...41...10B |s2cid=129252851}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rosi |first1=M. |last2=Vezzoli |first2=L. |last3=Aleotti |first3=P. |last4=de&nbsp;Censi |first4=M. |year=1996 |title=Interaction between caldera collapse and eruptive dynamics during the Campanian Ignimbrite eruption, Phlegraean Fields, Italy |journal=Bulletin of Volcanology |volume=57 |issue=7 |pages=541 |doi=10.1007/BF00304438 |bibcode=1996BVol...57..541R |s2cid=128796526}}</ref>


=== Ignimbrite deposit ===
=== Ignimbrite phase ===
⚫
The Plinian phase was followed by six main units of impressive pyroclastic density currents spreading over an area of {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} and managing to surmount mountain ridges up to {{convert|1000|m|ft|adj=mid|-high}}, extinguishing all life within a radius of about {{convert|100|km|mi|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cappelletti |first=P. |last2=Cerri |first2=G. |last3=Colella |first3=A. |last4=de’Gennaro |first4=M. |last5=Langella |first5=A. |last6=Perrotta |first6=A. |last7=Scarpati |first7=C. |date=2003-10-01 |title=Post-eruptive processes in the Campanian Ignimbrite |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00710-003-0003-7 |journal=Mineralogy and Petrology |language=en |volume=79 |issue=1 |pages=79–97 |doi=10.1007/s00710-003-0003-7 |issn=1438-1168}}</ref><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7" /><ref>{{cite press release |author1=Hoffecker |display-authors=etal |date= |title=From the Bay of Naples to the River Don: the Campanian Ignimbrite eruption and the Middle to Upper Paleolithic transition in Eastern Europe |publisher=Journal of Human Evolution |website=archeo.ru |url=http://www.archeo.ru/struktura-1/otdel-arheologii-paleolita/pdf/Hoffecker_al_JournalofHumanEvolution-55-2008.pdf |access-date=20 September 2016}}{{full citation|date=April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fedele |first1=Francesco G. |last2=Giaccio |first2=Biagio |last3=Isaia |first3=Roberto |last4=Orsi |first4=Giovanni |year=2002 |title=Ecosystem impact of the Campanian Ignimbrite eruption in Late Pleistocene Europe |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223543032 |journal=Quaternary Research |volume=57 |issue=3 |pages=420–424 |bibcode=2002QuRes..57..420F |doi=10.1006/qres.2002.2331 |s2cid=129476314 |access-date=5 September 2016}}</ref>
[[File:Ignimbrite.jpg| thumb|right|[[Ignimbrite]]]]
The [[ignimbrite]] is a gray, poorly to moderately welded, nearly saturated [[Potassium|potassic]] trachyte, similar to many other [[trachyte]]s of the Quaternary volcanic province of Campania. It consists of pumice and lithic fragments in a devitrified matrix that contains [[sanidine]], lesser plagioclase rimmed by sanidine, two [[clinopyroxene]]s, [[biotite]], and [[magnetite]]. The column collapse that generated the widespread ignimbrite deposit most likely occurred due to an increase of the '''Mass Eruption Rate (MER)''', (see [[Eruption column]]).<ref>{{cite web |author= |date= |title=Mobility of a large-volume pyroclastic flow – emplacement of the Campanian Ignimbrite, Italy |page= |publisher=University of California |place=Santa Barbara, CA |department=Geology / Vulcanology |url=http://volcanology.geol.ucsb.edu/camptuff.htm |access-date=22 September 2016}}{{full citation|date=April 2021}}</ref>


The collapse of Plinian column due to an increase of the mass eruption rate produced the first ignimbrite unit, the Unconsolidated Stratified Ash Flow.<ref>{{cite web |author= |date= |title=Mobility of a large-volume pyroclastic flow – emplacement of the Campanian Ignimbrite, Italy |url=http://volcanology.geol.ucsb.edu/camptuff.htm |access-date=22 September 2016 |publisher=University of California |place=Santa Barbara, CA |page= |department=Geology / Vulcanology}}{{full citation|date=April 2021}}</ref><ref name=":7" /> Subsequently, the eruption advances into the climactic stage, generating three ignimbrite units, namely the voluminous Welded Grey Ignimbrite, Coarse Pumice Flow, and Lower Pumice Flow Unit. Collectively, these three units constitute the bulk of the CI eruption.<ref name=":7" /> The Y-5 co-ignimbrite ash dispersals to the southeast and northeast within {{convert|1000|km|mi|abbr=on}} of Campi Flegrei are associated with these first four units of pyroclastic density currents.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last=Smith |first=Victoria C. |last2=Isaia |first2=Roberto |last3=Engwell |first3=Sam L. |last4=Albert |first4=Paul. G. |date=2016-05-26 |title=Tephra dispersal during the Campanian Ignimbrite (Italy) eruption: implications for ultra-distal ash transport during the large caldera-forming eruption |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00445-016-1037-0 |journal=Bulletin of Volcanology |language=en |volume=78 |issue=6 |pages=45 |doi=10.1007/s00445-016-1037-0 |issn=1432-0819}}</ref> [[File:Ignimbrite.jpg| thumb|right|[[Ignimbrite]]]]After the eruption of the first four units, the majority of the CI magma had been expelled, resulting in the collapse of the caldera. The collapse triggered a new phase of eruption of Breccia/Spatter Unit and Upper Pumice Flow Unit. The magma was sourced from the lowermost, less evolved portions of the chamber. These two units represented the last stage of eruption and were only emplaced as very proximal deposits along the caldera rim.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7" /> Most of the ultra-distal dispersal > {{convert|1500|km|mi|abbr=on}} was associated with this stage.<ref name=":8" />
The immediate area was completely buried by thick layers of pyroclastic fragments, volcanic blocks, [[lapilli]] and ash. Two thirds of [[Campania]] sank under a layer of tuff as much as {{convert|100|m|ft|abbr=on}} thick. The greater ignimbrite deposit, mostly trachytic ash and pumice, covered an area of at least {{convert|6095|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}},<ref name=":0"/> encompassing most of the southern Italian peninsula and the eastern [[Mediterranean]] region.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rosi |first1=M. |last2=Vezzoli |first2=L. |last3=Aleotti |first3=P. |last4=de&nbsp;Censi |first4=M. |year=1996 |title=Interaction between caldera collapse and eruptive dynamics during the Campanian Ignimbrite eruption, Phlegraean Fields, Italy |journal=Bulletin of Volcanology |volume=57 |issue=7 |pages=541 |doi=10.1007/BF00304438 |bibcode=1996BVol...57..541R |s2cid=128796526 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Eine extrem kurze Umpolung des Erdmagnetfeldes, Klimaschwankungen und ein Supervulkan ... vor 39400&nbsp;Jahren, in den untersuchten Sedimenten dokumentiert. Die Asche dieses Ausbruchs, bei dem etwa 350&nbsp;Kubik-Kilometer Gestein und Lava ausgeworfen wurden&nbsp;... |date=16 October 2012 |website=Informationsdienst Wissenschaft e. V. |series=Archaeology and Prehistory |lang=de |url=https://idw-online.de/de/news501713 |access-date=5 September 2016}}</ref>


Calculations of exposed and inferred thickness and area of pyroclastic density currents yield a total ignimbrite volume of {{convert|60-83|km3|mi3|abbr=on}} of magma. Consequently, the DRE volume of co-ignimbrite ash based on vitric loss method falls in the range of {{convert|116-155|km3|mi3|abbr=on}}. As a result, the overall magma volume expelled during this phase amounts to {{convert|179-243|km3|mi3|abbr=on}} DRE.<ref name=":0" />
Calculations of ash thickness measurements collected at 115 sites and a three dimensional ash dispersal model add up to a total amount of fallout material of 300&nbsp;km<sup>3</sup> of [[tephra]] across an area of {{convert|3700000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}. Considering volume estimations of up to {{convert|300|km3|mi3|abbr=on}} for the proximal pyroclastic density current deposits, the total bulk volume of the CI eruption is {{convert|680|km3|mi3|abbr=on}} covering most of the eastern Mediterranean and ash clouds reaching as far as central Russia.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Engwell |first1=S.L. |last2=Sparks |first2=R.S. |last3=Carey |first3=S. |last4=Aspinall |first4=W. |year=2011 |title=The Campanian Ignimbrite eruption: Inferring eruption characteristics from distal submarine deposits |series=AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts |publisher=[[American Geophysical Union]] |volume=51 |pages=V51F–2565 |bibcode=2011AGUFM.V51F2565E}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Campanian Ignimbrite: Possibly more devastating than previously thought |date=20 June 2013 |publisher=Max Planck Gesellschaft |place=München, DE |url=https://www.mpg.de/7327471/Campanian-Ignimbrite |access-date=24 September 2016}}</ref> A most recent work calculated the volume of the ignimbrite and updated the total eruptive volume to 457–660&nbsp;km<sup>3</sup> (181–265&nbsp;km<sup>3</sup> Dense Rock Equivalent). This volume corresponds to a mass of 4.7–6.9×10<sup>14</sup>&nbsp;kg, to a Richter magnitude of 7.7–7.8 and to a VEI&nbsp;7.<ref name=":0" />

Numerical simulation obtained a lower estimate of {{convert|62|km3|mi3|abbr=on}} DRE for co-ignimbrite ash.<ref name=":2" />


== Global impact ==
== Global impact ==

Revision as of 06:21, 19 May 2023

Campanian Ignimbrite eruption
VolcanoPhlegraean Fields
Dateca. 37,000 to 38,000 BCE
TypePlinian eruption
LocationNaples, Campania, Italy
40°49′37″N 14°08′20″E / 40.827°N 14.139°E / 40.827; 14.139
VEI7
Phlegraean Fields is located in Italy
Phlegraean Fields
Phlegraean Fields
Location of eruption

The Campanian Ignimbrite eruption (CI, also CI Super-eruption) was a major volcanic eruption in the Mediterranean during the late Quaternary, classified 7 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI).[1][2] The event has been attributed to the Archiflegreo volcano, the 12-by-15-kilometre-wide (7.5 mi × 9.3 mi) caldera of the Phlegraean Fields, located 20 km (12 mi) west of Mount Vesuvius under the western outskirts of the city of Naples and the Gulf of Pozzuoli, Italy.[3] Estimates of the date and magnitude of the eruption(s), and the amount of ejected material have varied considerably during several centuries the site has been studied. This applies to most significant volcanic events that originated in the Campanian Plain, as it is one of the most complex volcanic structures in the world. However, continued research, advancing methods, and accumulation of volcanological, geochronological, and geochemical data have improved the dates' accuracy.[4]

The most recent results by radiocarbon and argon–argon dating are, respectively, 39 705 to 39 220 calendar year BP[5] and 39850±140 year BP.[6] The estimated eruptive volume in dense-rock equivalent (DRE) is in the range of 181–265 km3 (43–64 cu mi),[1] and tephra has dispersed over an area of around 3,000,000 km2 (1,200,000 sq mi), commonly referred to as the ash horizon Y-5.[7][8] The accuracy of these numbers is of significance for marine geologists, climatologists, palaeontologists, paleo-anthropologists and researchers of related fields as the event coincides with a number of global and local phenomena, such as widespread discontinuities in archaeological sequences, climatic oscillations and biocultural modifications.[9]

Etymology

The term Campanian refers to the Campanian volcanic arc located mostly but not exclusively in the region of Campania in southern Italy that stretches over a subduction zone created by the convergence of the African and Eurasian plates.[10] It should not be confused with the Late Cretaceous stage Campanian.

The word ignimbrite was coined by New Zealand geologist Patrick Marshall from Latin ignis (fire) and imber (shower)) and -ite. It means the deposits that form as a result of a pyroclastic eruption.[11]

Background

Main article: Phlegraean Fields
Solfatara Pozzuoli

The Phlegraean Fields (Italian: Campi Flegrei "burning fields"[a])[12] caldera is a nested structure with a diameter of around 12 km × 15 km (7.5 mi × 9.3 mi).[13] It is composed of the older Campanian Ignimbrite caldera, the younger Neapolitan Yellow Tuff caldera and widely scattered sub-aerial and submarine vents from which the most recent eruptions have originated. The Fields sit upon a Pliocene – Quaternary Extensional domain with faults, that run North-East to South-West and North-West to South-East from the margin of the Apennine thrust belt. The sequence of deformation has been subdivided into three periods.[14]

Phlegraean Periods

  • The First Period, which includes the Campanian Ignimbrite Eruption, was the most decisive era in the Phlegraean Fields' geologic history. Beginning more than 40,000 years ago as the external caldera formed, subsequent caldera collapses and repeated volcanic activity took place within a limited area.[15]
  • During the Second Period, the smaller Neapolitan Yellow Tuff eruption (Neapolitan Yellow Tuff or NYT) took place around 15,000 years ago.
  • Eruptions of the Third Period occurred during three intervals between 15,000–9,500 years ago, 8,600–8,200 years ago and from 4,800 to 3,800 years ago.[16]

The structure's magma chamber remains active as there apparently are solfataras, hot springs, gas emissions and frequent episodes of large-scale up- and downlift ground deformation (Bradyseism) do occur.[17][18]

In 2008 it was discovered that the Phlegraean Fields and Mount Vesuvius have a common magma chamber at a depth of 10 km (6.2 mi).[19]

The region's volcanic nature has been recognized since Antiquity, investigated and studied for many centuries. Methodical scientific research began in the late 19th century. The yellow tuff stone was extensively quarried for centuries, which left large underground cavities that served as aqueducts and cisterns for the collection of rain water.[20]

In 2016 Italian Volcanologists announced plans to drill a probe 3 km (1.9 mi) deep into the Phlegraean Fields several years after the 2008 Campi Flegrei Deep Drilling Project which had aimed to drill a 3.5 km (2.2 mi) diagonal borehole in order to bring up rock samples and install seismic equipment. The project was suspended in 2010 due to safety problems.[21]

Eruptive sequence

Diagram of a Plinian eruption. (key: 1. Ash plume; 2. Magma conduit; 3. Volcanic ash rain; 4. Layers of lava and ash; 5. Stratum; 6. Magma chamber)

The CI eruption has been interpreted as the largest volcanic eruption of the past 200,000 years in Europe.[22] The eruption started with an intense Plinian phase, succeeded by a sequence of voluminous pyroclastic density currents with co-ignimbrite plumes.[8][23] Both phases generated high eruptive columns, culminating in the widespread deposition of the Y-5 layer.[7][23][24]

Plinian phase

The distribution of basal Plinian fallout strongly suggests that the onset of the eruption occurred in the northeastern sector of Campi Flegrei.[25] This phase is supplied by the uppermost, most evolved trachytic magma of the chamber.[26][27]

A detailed attempt to reconstruct this phase through direct field measurements recognized the evolution of the Plinian column through five units of fall deposits. The eruption first reached a column height of 29 km (18 mi) and then peaked at 39 km (24 mi), and during the latest stage, the top of the plume waned to 26 km (16 mi). The entire Plinian eruption lasted about 20 hours and emitted 7.8 km3 (1.9 cu mi) of magma.[25] Another attempt at reconstruction by numerical simulation shows a different Plinian process. The eruptive column rose to 44 km (27 mi), and the entire phase was completed within 4 hours with a magma volume of 23 km3 (5.5 cu mi).[8]

Plinian tephra is present in deposits to distances of at least 1,400 km (870 mi) and between 130 km (81 mi) and 900 km (560 mi) constitutes 35–45% of the Y-5 deposit.[24]

Ignimbrite phase

The Plinian phase was followed by six main units of impressive pyroclastic density currents spreading over an area of 30,000 km2 (12,000 sq mi) and managing to surmount mountain ridges up to 1,000-metre-high (3,300 ft), extinguishing all life within a radius of about 100 km (62 mi).[28][26][27][29][30]

The collapse of Plinian column due to an increase of the mass eruption rate produced the first ignimbrite unit, the Unconsolidated Stratified Ash Flow.[31][27] Subsequently, the eruption advances into the climactic stage, generating three ignimbrite units, namely the voluminous Welded Grey Ignimbrite, Coarse Pumice Flow, and Lower Pumice Flow Unit. Collectively, these three units constitute the bulk of the CI eruption.[27] The Y-5 co-ignimbrite ash dispersals to the southeast and northeast within 1,000 km (620 mi) of Campi Flegrei are associated with these first four units of pyroclastic density currents.[32]

Ignimbrite

After the eruption of the first four units, the majority of the CI magma had been expelled, resulting in the collapse of the caldera. The collapse triggered a new phase of eruption of Breccia/Spatter Unit and Upper Pumice Flow Unit. The magma was sourced from the lowermost, less evolved portions of the chamber. These two units represented the last stage of eruption and were only emplaced as very proximal deposits along the caldera rim.[26][27] Most of the ultra-distal dispersal > 1,500 km (930 mi) was associated with this stage.[32]

Calculations of exposed and inferred thickness and area of pyroclastic density currents yield a total ignimbrite volume of 60–83 km3 (14–20 cu mi) of magma. Consequently, the DRE volume of co-ignimbrite ash based on vitric loss method falls in the range of 116–155 km3 (28–37 cu mi). As a result, the overall magma volume expelled during this phase amounts to 179–243 km3 (43–58 cu mi) DRE.[1]

Numerical simulation obtained a lower estimate of 62 km3 (15 cu mi) DRE for co-ignimbrite ash.[8]

Global impact

Graphic of deposit dispersal during the eruption

The event's recent dating at 39,280±110 years ago draws considerable scholarly attention as it marks a time interval characterized by biocultural modifications in western Eurasia and widespread discontinuities in archaeological sequences, such as the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transition. At several archaeological sites of South-eastern Europe, the ash separates the cultural layers containing Middle Palaeolithic and/or Earliest Upper Palaeolithic assemblages from the layers in which Upper Palaeolithic industries occur. At some sites the CI tephra deposit coincides with a long interruption of paleo-human occupation.

Effect on climate

The climatic importance of the eruption was tested in a three-dimensional sectional aerosol model that simulated the global aerosol cloud under glacial conditions. Black et al. (2015)[33] calculate that up to 450 million kilograms (990 million pounds) of sulphur dioxide would have been accumulated into the atmosphere, driving down temperatures at least by 1–2 degrees Celsius (1.8–3.6 degrees Fahrenheit) for a period of 2–3 years.[33]

Archaeology

Many archaeological sites in south-eastern Europe keep evidence of eruption. Kostyonki–Borshchyovo archaeological complex which is about 40,000 years old was found to have a layer of sediment ash.

Effect on living organisms

Sulphur dioxide and chloride emissions caused acidic rains, fluorine-laden particles become incorporated into plant matter, potentially inducing dental fluorosis, replete with eye, lung and organ damage in animal populations.[34]

Neanderthal demise

Further information: Neanderthal extinction

The eruption coincided also with the final decline of the Neanderthal in Europe. The environmental stress associated with the CI may have contributed to the extinction of the Neanderthals in combination with societal upheaval in the Paleolithic era. The notion remains contested; nonetheless, sources admit that although the CI would have affected both modern humans and Neanderthals equally, the assumed capacity of modern humans for resilience and ingenuity over and above that of Neanderthals could have allowed modern humans to recover more quickly at Neanderthals' expense.[35][36]

See also

Footnotes

  1. ^ The term Campi Flegrei   is mixed Latin and ancient Greek, indicating that the volcanic nature of the area has been well known in antiquity.

References

  1. ^ a b c Silleni, Aurora; Giordano, Guido; Isaia, Roberto; Ort, Michael H. (2020). "The magnitude of the 39.8 ka Campanian Ignimbrite eruption, Italy: Method, uncertainties, and errors". Frontiers in Earth Science. 8. doi:10.3389/feart.2020.543399. ISSN 2296-6463. S2CID 224274557.
  2. ^ Mastrolorenzo, Giuseppe; Palladino, Danilo M.; Pappalardo, Lucia; Rossano, Sergio (5 March 2016). "Probabilistic-Numerical assessment of pyroclastic current hazard at Campi Flegrei and Naples city: Multi-VEI scenarios as a tool for full-scale risk management – VEI 7 Campanian Ignimbrite extreme event". PLOS ONE. 12 (10): e0185756. arXiv:1603.01747. Bibcode:2017PLoSO..1285756M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0185756. PMC 5636126. PMID 29020018.
  3. ^ "Campi Flegrei (Phlegrean Fields) volcano". Volcano Discovery. Retrieved 5 September 2016.
  4. ^ de Vivo, B. (2001). "New constraints on the pyroclastic eruptive history of the Campanian volcanic plain (Italy)". Mineralogy and Petrology. 73 (1–3): 47–65. Bibcode:2001MinPe..73...47D. doi:10.1007/s007100170010. S2CID 129762185.
  5. ^ Muscheler, Raimund; Adolphi, Florian; Heaton, Timothy J; Bronk Ramsey, Christopher; Svensson, Anders; van der Plicht, Johannes; Reimer, Paula J (1 August 2020). "Testing and Improving the IntCal20 Calibration Curve with Independent Records". Radiocarbon. 62 (4): 1079–1094. doi:10.1017/RDC.2020.54. ISSN 0033-8222.
  6. ^ Giaccio, Biagio; Hajdas, Irka; Isaia, Roberto; Deino, Alan; Nomade, Sebastien (6 April 2017). "High-precision 14C and 40Ar/39Ar dating of the Campanian Ignimbrite (Y-5) reconciles the time-scales of climatic-cultural processes at 40 ka". Scientific Reports. 7 (1): 45940. doi:10.1038/srep45940. ISSN 2045-2322.
  7. ^ a b Pyle, David M.; Ricketts, Graham D.; Margari, Vasiliki; van Andel, Tjeerd H.; Sinitsyn, Andrei A.; Praslov, Nicolai D.; Lisitsyn, Sergei (1 November 2006). "Wide dispersal and deposition of distal tephra during the Pleistocene 'Campanian Ignimbrite/Y5' eruption, Italy". Quaternary Science Reviews. 25 (21): 2713–2728. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2006.06.008. ISSN 0277-3791.
  8. ^ a b c d Marti, Alejandro; Folch, Arnau; Costa, Antonio; Engwell, Samantha (17 February 2016). "Reconstructing the plinian and co-ignimbrite sources of large volcanic eruptions: A novel approach for the Campanian Ignimbrite". Scientific Reports. 6. Springer Nature: 21220. Bibcode:2016NatSR...621220M. doi:10.1038/srep21220. PMC 4756320. PMID 26883449. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
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  12. ^ "flegreo". Garzanti Linguistica. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
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  17. ^ "Phlegrean Fields volcano". VolcanoTrek. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
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  19. ^ "Der unsichtbare Supervulkan". Stuttgarter Zeitung. 19 January 2013. Retrieved 5 September 2016.
  20. ^ MalKo (21 August 2013). "Naples, the Vesuvius and the Phlegraean Fields". Rivista Hyde Park. Archived from the original on 23 September 2016. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
  21. ^ "Italian scientists to drill into active supervolcano". Mysterious Universe. 5 September 2016. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
  22. ^ "Ancient Super-Eruption Larger Than Thought ... about 39,000 years ago, it experienced the largest volcanic eruption that Europe has seen in the last 200,000 years". Livescience.com. 21 June 2012. Retrieved 24 September 2016.
  23. ^ a b Smith, Victoria C.; Isaia, Roberto; Engwell, Sam L.; Albert, Paul. G. (26 May 2016). "Tephra dispersal during the Campanian Ignimbrite (Italy) eruption: implications for ultra-distal ash transport during the large caldera-forming eruption". Bulletin of Volcanology. 78 (6). doi:10.1007/s00445-016-1037-0. ISSN 0258-8900.
  24. ^ a b Engwell, S. L.; Sparks, R. S. J.; Carey, S. (6 January 2014). "Physical characteristics of tephra layers in the deep sea realm: the Campanian Ignimbrite eruption". Geological Society, London, Special Publications. 398 (1): 47–64. doi:10.1144/SP398.7. ISSN 0305-8719.
  25. ^ a b Scarpati, Claudio; Perrotta, Annamaria (9 March 2016). "Stratigraphy and physical parameters of the Plinian phase of the Campanian Ignimbrite eruption". Geological Society of America Bulletin. 128 (7–8): 1147–1159. doi:10.1130/b31331.1. ISSN 0016-7606.
  26. ^ a b c Fedele, Lorenzo; Scarpati, Claudio; Lanphere, Marvin; Melluso, Leone; Morra, Vincenzo; Perrotta, Annamaria; Ricci, Gennaro (1 October 2008). "The Breccia Museo formation, Campi Flegrei, southern Italy: geochronology, chemostratigraphy and relationship with the Campanian Ignimbrite eruption". Bulletin of Volcanology. 70 (10): 1189–1219. doi:10.1007/s00445-008-0197-y. ISSN 1432-0819.
  27. ^ a b c d e Fedele, L.; Scarpati, C.; Sparice, D.; Perrotta, A.; Laiena, F. (16 September 2016). "A chemostratigraphic study of the Campanian Ignimbrite eruption (Campi Flegrei, Italy): Insights on magma chamber withdrawal and deposit accumulation as revealed by compositionally zoned stratigraphic and facies framework". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 324: 105–117. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2016.05.019.
  28. ^ Cappelletti, P.; Cerri, G.; Colella, A.; de’Gennaro, M.; Langella, A.; Perrotta, A.; Scarpati, C. (1 October 2003). "Post-eruptive processes in the Campanian Ignimbrite". Mineralogy and Petrology. 79 (1): 79–97. doi:10.1007/s00710-003-0003-7. ISSN 1438-1168.
  29. ^ Hoffecker; et al. "From the Bay of Naples to the River Don: the Campanian Ignimbrite eruption and the Middle to Upper Paleolithic transition in Eastern Europe" (PDF). archeo.ru (Press release). Journal of Human Evolution. Retrieved 20 September 2016.[full citation needed]
  30. ^ Fedele, Francesco G.; Giaccio, Biagio; Isaia, Roberto; Orsi, Giovanni (2002). "Ecosystem impact of the Campanian Ignimbrite eruption in Late Pleistocene Europe". Quaternary Research. 57 (3): 420–424. Bibcode:2002QuRes..57..420F. doi:10.1006/qres.2002.2331. S2CID 129476314. Retrieved 5 September 2016.
  31. ^ "Mobility of a large-volume pyroclastic flow – emplacement of the Campanian Ignimbrite, Italy". Geology / Vulcanology. Santa Barbara, CA: University of California. Retrieved 22 September 2016.[full citation needed]
  32. ^ a b Smith, Victoria C.; Isaia, Roberto; Engwell, Sam L.; Albert, Paul. G. (26 May 2016). "Tephra dispersal during the Campanian Ignimbrite (Italy) eruption: implications for ultra-distal ash transport during the large caldera-forming eruption". Bulletin of Volcanology. 78 (6): 45. doi:10.1007/s00445-016-1037-0. ISSN 1432-0819.
  33. ^ a b Black, Benjamin A.; Neely, Ryan R.; Manga, Michael (11 February 2015). "Campanian Ignimbrite volcanism, climate, and the final decline of the Neanderthals". Geology. 43 (5): 411–414. Bibcode:2015Geo....43..411B. doi:10.1130/G36514.1. OSTI 1512181. S2CID 128647846.
  34. ^ Schultz, Colin (18 June 2012). "Italian super-eruption larger than thought". Eos Transactions. 93 (30). phys org: 298–299. Bibcode:2012EOSTr..93X.298S. doi:10.1029/2012EO300025. Retrieved 5 September 2016.
  35. ^ "What are those darned Neanderthals up to now?". Anthropology in Practice. 11 October 2010. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
  36. ^ "Did a volcanic eruption kill off the Neanderthals?". Science for Writers. 25 March 2015. Retrieved 20 September 2016.

External links

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