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Mangroves in Nigeria are situated within the domains of local communities. This confers a crucial responsibility regarding the protection, conservation, and restoration of these ecosystems upon the neighboring communities. Successful mangrove restoration heavily relies on the support, approval, and active involvement of the community, constituting a significant prerequisite for success. For instance, community activities like artisanal crude oil refining have been reported to degrade mangrove ecosystems.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sam K., Zabbey N., Onyena A.P. |date=2022 |title=Implementing contaminated land remediation in Nigeria: Insights from the ogoni remediation project |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2022.106051 |journal=Land Use Policy}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Onyena A.P., Sam K. |date=2020 |title=A review of the threat of oil exploitation to mangrove ecosystem: Insights from Niger Delta, Nigeria |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2020.e00961 |journal=Glob. Ecol. Conserv. |volume=22}}</ref> Communities engage in such makeshift livelihoods to supplement subsistence and fulfill social or family obligations. Consequently, the expectations and perspectives of local communities should be incorporated into the project's objectives, planning, and execution. Mangrove restoration advocates, decision-makers, experts, and other stakeholders should mobilize and involve communities in the decision-making process. While community members may lack the technical expertise required for restoring degraded mangroves, they can identify potential endemic species that are threatened, endangered, or locally extinct, contributing to remediation and restoration decisions. Integrating this kind of indigenous knowledge can result in invaluable restoration outcomes. Additionally, community members can gather foundational data to support scientific research and reporting.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zabbey N., Sam K., Newsom C., Nyiaghan B.P. |date=2020 |title=The COVID-19 lockdown: An opportunity for conducting an air quality baseline in port harcourt |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2020.12.011 |journal=Nigeria. Extr. Ind. Soc. |volume=8 |pages=244-256}}</ref> Engaging the community in such capacities promotes inclusivity and ensures project ownership by the local communities, thus ensuring the sustainability of mangrove restoration efforts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Valenzuela R., Yeo-Chang Y., Park M.S., Chun J.N. |date=2020 |title=Local people’s participation in mangrove restoration projects and impacts on social capital and livelihood: A case study in the Philippines |journal=Forests |volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=580}}</ref>
Mangroves in Nigeria are situated within the domains of local communities. This confers a crucial responsibility regarding the protection, conservation, and restoration of these ecosystems upon the neighboring communities. Successful mangrove restoration heavily relies on the support, approval, and active involvement of the community, constituting a significant prerequisite for success. For instance, community activities like artisanal crude oil refining have been reported to degrade mangrove ecosystems.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sam K., Zabbey N., Onyena A.P. |date=2022 |title=Implementing contaminated land remediation in Nigeria: Insights from the ogoni remediation project |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2022.106051 |journal=Land Use Policy}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Onyena A.P., Sam K. |date=2020 |title=A review of the threat of oil exploitation to mangrove ecosystem: Insights from Niger Delta, Nigeria |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2020.e00961 |journal=Glob. Ecol. Conserv. |volume=22}}</ref> Communities engage in such makeshift livelihoods to supplement subsistence and fulfill social or family obligations. Consequently, the expectations and perspectives of local communities should be incorporated into the project's objectives, planning, and execution. Mangrove restoration advocates, decision-makers, experts, and other stakeholders should mobilize and involve communities in the decision-making process. While community members may lack the technical expertise required for restoring degraded mangroves, they can identify potential endemic species that are threatened, endangered, or locally extinct, contributing to remediation and restoration decisions. Integrating this kind of indigenous knowledge can result in invaluable restoration outcomes. Additionally, community members can gather foundational data to support scientific research and reporting.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zabbey N., Sam K., Newsom C., Nyiaghan B.P. |date=2020 |title=The COVID-19 lockdown: An opportunity for conducting an air quality baseline in port harcourt |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2020.12.011 |journal=Nigeria. Extr. Ind. Soc. |volume=8 |pages=244-256}}</ref> Engaging the community in such capacities promotes inclusivity and ensures project ownership by the local communities, thus ensuring the sustainability of mangrove restoration efforts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Valenzuela R., Yeo-Chang Y., Park M.S., Chun J.N. |date=2020 |title=Local people’s participation in mangrove restoration projects and impacts on social capital and livelihood: A case study in the Philippines |journal=Forests |volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=580}}</ref>


Transferring skills and knowledge constitutes a vital element of a mangrove restoration framework. Interactions between experts and the local populace create opportunities for mutual development and dissemination of knowledge essential for effective mangrove restoration and conservation. Collaboration and involvement of both experts and local communities, facilitated through practical training, public education on the benefits of mangrove restoration and conservation, and active participation in restoration efforts in the field, enhance ownership, support, success, and access to local advantages. Over time, community members gain restoration skills and become proficient in independently rejuvenating degraded mangroves. This transformation has been evident in the Oproama community, where CEHRD facilitated a community-driven science initiative to gather foundational data for the Oproama coastal environment<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zabbey N., Kpaniku N.C., Sam K., Nwipie G.N., Okoro O.E., Zabbey F.G., Babatunde B.B. |date=2021 |title=Could community science drive environmental management in Nigeria’s degrading coastal Niger delta? Prospects and challenges |journal=Environmental Development |volume=37}}</ref>.
Transferring skills and knowledge constitutes a vital element of a mangrove restoration framework. Interactions between experts and the local populace create opportunities for mutual development and dissemination of knowledge essential for effective mangrove restoration and conservation. Collaboration and involvement of both experts and local communities, facilitated through practical training, public education on the benefits of mangrove restoration and conservation, and active participation in restoration efforts in the field, enhance ownership, support, success, and access to local advantages. Over time, community members gain restoration skills and become proficient in independently rejuvenating degraded mangroves. This transformation has been evident in the Oproama community, where CEHRD facilitated a community-driven science initiative to gather foundational data for the Oproama coastal environment.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zabbey N., Kpaniku N.C., Sam K., Nwipie G.N., Okoro O.E., Zabbey F.G., Babatunde B.B. |date=2021 |title=Could community science drive environmental management in Nigeria’s degrading coastal Niger delta? Prospects and challenges |journal=Environmental Development |volume=37}}</ref>


Community engagement fosters unity and cultivates peaceful cohabitation within local communities. This stems from the cultural significance and symbolic meanings that mangroves hold in coastal communities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pegg S., Zabbey N. |date=2013 |title=Oil and water: the bodo spills and the destruction of traditional livelihood structures in the Niger Delta |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/cdj/bst021 |journal=Commun. Dev. J. |volume=48 |pages=391-405}}</ref> The involvement of mangroves in performing arts is a notable example. For instance, the wood of the black mangrove (Avicennia germinas) is employed in crafting "elumene" masks, and its twigs and leaves adorn the mouth of the hippopotamus masquerade during presentations (Fentiman and Zabbey, 2015). The process of ecological restoration can thus establish a connection between people and nature, kindling the local population's interest in environmental concerns and nurturing reverence and care for the ecosystems (Higgs, 2003).
Community engagement fosters unity and cultivates peaceful cohabitation within local communities. This stems from the cultural significance and symbolic meanings that mangroves hold in coastal communities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pegg S., Zabbey N. |date=2013 |title=Oil and water: the bodo spills and the destruction of traditional livelihood structures in the Niger Delta |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/cdj/bst021 |journal=Commun. Dev. J. |volume=48 |pages=391-405}}</ref> The involvement of mangroves in performing arts is a notable example. For instance, the wood of the black mangrove (Avicennia germinas) is employed in crafting "elumene" masks, and its twigs and leaves adorn the mouth of the hippopotamus masquerade during presentations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fentiman A., Zabbey N. |date=2015 |title=Environmental degradation and cultural erosion in ogoniland: a case study of the oil spills in bodo |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2015.05.008 |journal=J. Extr. Ind. Soc. |volume=2 |pages=615-624}}</ref> The process of ecological restoration can thus establish a connection between people and nature, kindling the local population's interest in environmental concerns and nurturing reverence and care for the ecosystems.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Higgs E. |date=2003 |title=Nature by Design: People, Natural Process, and Ecological Restoration |journal=MIT Press}}</ref>

=== The Role of Government (Decision making and policy direction) ===
The governmental role in decision-making and policy direction is significant. Policies encompass how governments or private entities define, manage, and address public issues.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Parsons W. |date=2006 |title=Innovation in the public sector: Spare tyres and fourths plinths |journal=Innovation Journal |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=1-10}}</ref> In Nigeria, a range of policy documents and instruments exist at various governance levels. At the Federal level, provisions in the 1999 Constitution, as amended, specifically Sections 20 and 16(2), highlight the need for environmental protection. Additionally, the 1989 National Policy on Environment, the Millennium Development Goals Project, and various international conventions ratified by Nigeria outline actions for environmental protection and restoration. However, some of these instruments may not fully align with the goals and policy recommendations outlined in the Geneva Road Map. Concerns also persist regarding the effectiveness of these regulatory instruments in achieving environmental sustainability.

The government bears the responsibility of formulating and enforcing a sustainable legislative framework to enhance mangrove conservation and restoration. A robust regulatory framework is essential to guide, regulate, and influence human behavior towards sustainable coastal practices, ultimately leading to successful mangrove protection and restoration. While ecological conservation policies exist, few specifically delineate requirements for mangrove protection and restoration. A thorough review of the regulations, particularly those enacted post-1960s, reveals that many of them primarily established agencies, expecting these agencies to develop environmental regulations. For instance, the Petroleum Act of 1968 mandated the Minister of Petroleum Resources to develop regulations addressing environmental degradation caused by oil spills.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sam K., Coulon F., Prpich G. |date=2017 |title=Management of petroleum hydrocarbon contaminated sites in Nigeria: Current challenges and future direction |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2017.01.051 |journal=Land Use Policy |volume=64 |pages=133-144}}</ref> However, since around 2001, the Nigerian National Wetland Policy, which would have been a direct wetland policy, has remained in draft form without necessary actions to formalize it into a regulation or law.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Walker J.E., Ankersen T., Barchiesi S., Meyer C.K., Altieri A.H., Osborne T.Z., Angelini C. |date=2022 |title=Governance and the mangrove commons: Advancing the cross-scale, nested framework for the global conservation and wise use of mangroves. |journal=J. Environ. Manag. |volume=312}}</ref>

Legislative instruments play a crucial role in promoting sustainable mangrove management, encouraging ecosystem conservation by stakeholders through co-ownership and effective management. Such instruments can provide incentives for investment in mangrove restoration, especially by the private sector. For instance, legislative declarations rewarding mangrove protection through co-management approaches can incentivize community vanguards, ensuring sustainable mangrove harvesting. These regulations outline governance structures and define stakeholders' roles, including experts and various professionals, in mangrove protection and restoration processes.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Bayraktarov E., Brisbane S., Hagger V., Smith C.S., Wilson K.A., Lovelock C.E., Saunders M.I. |date=2020 |title=Priorities and motivations of marine coastal restoration research |journal=Front. Mar. Sci. |pages=484}}</ref>

Local ecological protection and restoration regulations are vital tools to curb detrimental environmental behavior and attitudes that contribute to ecological degradation. Existing ecological management regulations in Nigeria, however, often lack robust penalties and disincentives, inadvertently encouraging pollution and environmental harm. Addressing issues such as unsustainable mangrove harvesting necessitates contextual mangrove regulations within local communities. The government, as a decision-maker, holds the responsibility of establishing a network of mangrove protected areas, covering biodiversity hotspots to enhance conservation efforts. Developing sustainable mangrove policies that facilitate the creation of networks of mangrove conservation areas can act as a buffer zone, encouraging initiatives, research, and creativity towards mangrove conservation. Collaboration with research institutions, local communities, and charities is essential for developing localized mangrove restoration and conservation policies that drive investment, research, and mapping of endemic and endangered species for adaptive management. Participatory policies can drive community-led campaigns, fostering behavioral changes and encouraging ecosystem conservation. Engaging community volunteers in mangrove restoration is vital, and sustainable mangrove conservation policies promoting co-management frameworks can sustain community involvement in mangrove protection and restoration activities. Overall, effective legislative instruments and localized regulations are indispensable for the successful and sustainable management of mangroves.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rahman M. |date=2014 |title=Plant diversity and forest structure of the three protected areas (wildlife sanctuaries) of Bangladesh sundarbans: Current status and management strategies |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-8582-7_7 |journal=Mangrove Ecosystems of Asia: Status, Challenges and Management Strategies |pages=127-152}}</ref> <ref name=":12" /> <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ross L.M. |date=1994 |title=Illinois’ volunteer corps: a model program with deep roots in the prairie |journal=Restor. Manag. Notes |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=57-59}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sam K. |date=2022 |title=Contaminated land management policy transfer: Drivers and barriers within the Nigerian context |journal=Afr. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. |volume=16 |issue=9 |pages=320-334}}</ref>

=== Non-governmental organizations and charities ===
Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and charitable entities play a vital role in mobilizing various stakeholders, building capacity, and instigating behavioral shifts to achieve conservation and restoration objectives. NGOs focusing on environmental issues, like CEHRD, are pivotal in educating and enhancing the capabilities of local communities, government agencies, and other stakeholders in mangrove restoration processes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zabbey N., Tanee F.B. |date=2016 |title=Assessment of asymmetric mangrove restoration trials in ogoniland, Niger Delta, Nigeria: lessons for future intervention |journal=Ecol. Restoration |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=245-257}}</ref> In 2005, CEHRD pioneered community-driven mangrove restoration in the Niger Delta through practical training, awareness campaigns, skill development, and collaborative mangrove replantation efforts in oil spill-affected mangrove areas in Bodo Creek.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=CEHRD, Centre for Environment, Human Rights and Development |date=2021 |title=A training manual on mangrove ‘restoration’ in coastal communities of the Niger Delta, Nigeria |url=https://cehrd.org.ng/download-the-cehrd-mangrove-restoration-manual/ |journal=}}</ref> CEHRD has also published a user-friendly mangrove restoration manual specific to the Niger Delta. Similarly, the Mangrove Action Project (MAP), a prominent global advocate for mangrove conservation, regularly publishes content related to mangroves in its MAP Bulletin and has produced a guide for ecologically sound mangrove restoration. NGOs possess the ability to secure funding for mangrove restoration, a long-term endeavor requiring persistent education and sensitization efforts.

Many supported mangrove restoration projects span 3 to 5 years, allowing for short-term monitoring of initial success indicators. Consequently, NGOs are equipped to continually mobilize funding and engage in sustained monitoring of mangrove restoration initiatives. Their significant role lies in raising public awareness about sustainable mangrove management, fostering an ongoing process of restoration and conservation. NGOs mobilize the public to actively participate in environmental monitoring, promote environmental consciousness, encourage citizen science, and advocate for biodiversity conservation.


== Biodiversity ==
== Biodiversity ==

Revision as of 15:05, 2 October 2023

Nigeria has extensive mangrove forests in the coastal region of the Niger Delta. Considered one of the most ecologically sensitive regions in the world, the Niger Delta mangrove forest is situated within a deltaic depositional environment. These mangrove forests serve a critical role in regional ecological and landscape composition, and support subsistence gathering practices, and market-based income opportunities. Anthropogenic development threatens the survival of Niger Delta mangrove populations.

Map of Nigeria's vegetation zones

Overview

World map of mangrove distribution

Mangrove forests are found in 118 countries and territories worldwide,[1] 75% of mangrove vegetation zones are located in intertidal tropic and sub-tropic habitats situated between 25° N and 25° S . Typically surrounding salient river deltas, mangrove regions support a variety of halophytes. These robust shrubs and trees, which have adapted to changing coastal conditions (such as inundation, sun exposure, anaerobic soil, and salinity concentration), play a substantive role in cultivating the biodiversity and wellbeing of the surrounding landscape.[2]

Introduction

Mangroves are coastal wetland forests located in the intertidal zones of tropical and subtropical estuaries, saline backwaters, deltas, creeks, and lagoons. The mangrove ecosystem represents specific areas where mangrove plants flourish. These halophytic plants, including trees, shrubs, palms, and ferns, grow in the intertidal zones of brackish waters or estuarine wetlands in tropical and subtropical regions. This unique environment within mangroves influences the morphology, anatomy, and behavior of a community of organisms, showcasing local adaptations. The mangrove forests play a crucial role in coastal stabilization, minimizing the impact of wave action and wind energy on the shoreline, and acting as excellent inland structure defenders. They also act as carbon sinks, sequestering a significant amount of carbon annually. Despite covering a small percentage of the Earth's surface, mangroves account for a substantial portion of terrestrial carbon input into the ocean. Additionally, mangroves are highly productive ecosystems, supporting coastal populations' livelihoods directly and indirectly and providing habitats for various wildlife populations, including wading birds and seabirds. These forests also serve as essential sources of food, medicine, fuel, and shelter for many people, particularly those in coastal regions.[3] [4]

Mangroves have a crucial ecological function in stabilizing coastal areas by mitigating the effects of wave action and wind energy on the shoreline, effectively acting as natural defenses for inland structures. The mangrove plants and the sediments surrounding them serve as carbon sinks, capturing approximately 22.8 million metric tons of carbon each year. In fact, they are superior in carbon sequestration compared to other blue carbon ecosystems, making them a significant nature-based response to climate change. Despite occupying a small fraction of the Earth's continental surface (approximately 0.1%), mangrove forests contribute 11% of all terrestrial carbon input into the ocean.

Mangroves stand out as highly productive ecosystems globally, offering essential support to the livelihoods of coastal communities both directly and indirectly. They provide habitats and sustenance to diverse wildlife populations, such as wading birds and seabirds. Additionally, mangroves play a crucial role as a significant resource for food, medicine, fuel, and housing for numerous individuals in Nigeria, especially those residing in coastal areas.[5][6]

The Niger Delta mangrove is the third largest in the world and the largest in Africa. Since the 1960s oil and gas exploration has become an important economic activity, resulting in significant alteration of the landscape via pollution, urbanization and invasion.

African mangroves have faced significant challenges in recent times, experiencing substantial losses. The decline, devastation, and deterioration of mangrove forests can be linked to several factors such as urbanization, quarrying, salt and sand extraction, pollution from industries and agro-industrial chemicals, as well as petroleum and gas exploitation. Additionally, the absence of adequate legislation and deforestation for fish smoking contribute to this issue. The mangrove forest zone in Nigeria not only enhances the socio-economic prosperity of rural coastal communities but also holds promise in shielding them from severe weather occurrences intensified by climate change. The anticipated rise in sea levels is expected to heighten flooding in coastal areas at lower altitudes, subsequently amplifying the physical and socio-economic susceptibilities of coastal urban centers. Nigeria has been acknowledged as one of the most susceptible African nations to climate change, and its impacts are currently manifesting in various regions of the country. [7]

In Nigeria, there are more than 2,000 industrial facilities, with approximately 80% of them concentrated in the coastal areas, particularly in urban hubs like Lagos, Port Harcourt, and nearby regions. The industries in Nigeria's coastal zone encompass a range of sectors including oil and gas, petrochemicals, iron and steel, fertilizer plants, aluminum smelting plants, as well as diverse manufacturing industries such as textiles, food processing, plastics, pharmaceuticals, cement production, soap and detergent manufacturing, paint production, brewing, and wood pulp and paper production. Considering that a significant portion of Nigeria's industrial facilities are situated in coastal states, and a growing population resides and works in areas vulnerable to climate change, the significance of mangrove deforestation and degradation cannot be overlooked. Hence, this study delved into the origins of mangrove deforestation and degradation within Nigeria's Niger Delta Region, analyzing the repercussions within a swiftly evolving climate context.[8]

Rhizophora racemosa

Biological composition

Biologically, six mangrove species make up these forests, including three species in the family Rhizophoraceae (Rhizophora racemosa (red mangrove; tall), Rhizophora harrisonii (red mangrove; dwarf), Rhizophora mangle (red mangrove; dwarf)), and species in the family Avicenniaceae (white mangrove) and Combretaceae.[9] Of these species, Rhizophora racemosa occupies the greatest density of the forest, accounting for approximately 90% of all mangrove biota.[9] Despite expansive geographic coverage, the Niger Delta mangrove forest has approximately 80% of its vegetation distributed in three states (Bayelsa, Delta, and River states).[10]

Although the forest is composed of six mangrove species, mangrove growth is primarily situated in brackish muddy creek banks.[9] Studies have indicated that Rhizophora racemosa (which is the tallest mangrove species) reaches its optimized growth potential when exposed to brackish water and soft mud, whereas R. racemosa's relatives, R. mangle and R. harrisonii, favor higher salinity and hard mud.[9] In its natural state, mangrove soil or “chikoko” (a mixture of acid sulphate, silty clay, clay loam and peat), has a pH of 4 and 6 for mangroves inhabiting low-tide and high-tide locations, respectively.[11] If salinity levels shift too much from these levels, mudflats become unsuitable for mangrove production, and the process of mangrove reforestation (from infertile mangrove land to productive mangrove mudflat) can take upwards of one century.[9]

Distribution of Mangrove Forest in Nigeria

In the coastal areas of Nigeria, the mangrove forest is distributed as follows:

  • Lagos, a coastal area in Nigeria, has a total expanse of 42.20 square kilometers. Within this area, specifically 3.13 square kilometers, are designated as forest reserves. This portion within the forest reserves represents 7.42% of the overall area of Lagos. Essentially, this signifies that a small but significant part of Lagos is designated as a forest reserve, contributing to the preservation and conservation of the region's natural habitats and ecosystems.[12]
  • In Ogun, a region in Nigeria, the total area covered by mangroves is 12.18 square kilometers. Interestingly, unlike some other areas, there are no mangrove areas specifically designated within forest reserves in this region. This implies that all the mangroves in Ogun are in non-reserve areas, lacking the protective designation of a forest reserve. This situation could have implications for conservation efforts and suggests that mangrove preservation and management in Ogun may need to rely on other forms of protection and sustainability initiatives beyond designated reserves.
  • In the region of Ondo, Nigeria, mangroves cover an area of 40.62 square kilometers. However, unlike some other regions where mangroves may be allocated within forest reserves for protection and management, Ondo does not have any mangrove areas designated within forest reserves. This means that all the mangroves in Ondo are situated outside of the officially designated forest reserve areas. This lack of mangroves within forest reserves can influence the conservation and management approach for these important ecosystems in Ondo. Preserving mangroves in this region would likely necessitate alternative strategies and efforts aimed at safeguarding them outside of formal reserve designations. It underscores the importance of comprehensive conservation measures and sustainable practices to ensure the continued health and vitality of the mangroves in Ondo.[12]
  • In the Edo/Delta region of Nigeria, the mangrove forest area covers a substantial 3,470.32 square kilometers. Within this extensive area, 143.75 square kilometers of mangroves are located within designated forest reserves. This signifies that approximately 4.14% of the total mangrove area is officially protected within these forest reserves. Having a portion of the mangrove area within forest reserves is vital for their preservation and sustainable management. The forest reserves serve as protected zones where activities detrimental to the mangroves, such as indiscriminate logging or habitat destruction, are regulated or prohibited. This helps maintain the ecological balance and the diverse array of flora and fauna that depend on mangrove ecosystems.
  • In the Rivers/Bayelsa region of Nigeria, the mangrove forest area spans a vast 5,435.96 square kilometers. Within this extensive expanse, 90.62 square kilometers of mangroves are designated within forest reserves. This indicates that approximately 1.67% of the total mangrove area is safeguarded within these specific forest reserves.[12]
  • In the Cross River/Akwa Ibom region, the mangrove forest spans an expansive area of 721.86 square kilometers, and within this expanse, 67.19 square kilometers fall under the protection of forest reserves, accounting for a notable 9.31%. Altogether, considering all regions, the total mangrove forest area amounts to an impressive 9,723.14 square kilometers, with 304.69 square kilometers nestled within designated forest reserves. [12]

Socio-ecological vitality

The Niger Delta mangrove forests play critical roles for 60% of local peoples who rely on the land and sea for survival.[13] The forests contribute local therapeutic, amenity, heritage, spiritual, and existence values.[10] Responses from a survey conducted in 2007 and 2008 evaluating mangrove social value in three Niger Delta communities indicated approximately 85% of participant households had previously utilized mangrove vegetation as a medicinal remedy and between 65% and 71% of villagers recognized the mangrove forests as a place of repose. Further, each study village relied on the local mangrove forest for carrying out cultural traditions (relying on forest as an ancestral burying site or place of festivity such as in Buguma), spiritual significance, and the survival of locally resource-dependent communities.[10]

Another study evaluating the socio-economic importance of mangrove forests to 950 households residing in Akassa, Bayelsa revealed a strong connection between mangroves and the primary and secondary occupations of individuals living in proximity to the forests. The study noted that while not all residents’ vocations directly relied on mangrove resource extraction, all households depended on the forest for resources to fulfill their basic physiological needs (such as fuelwood, mangrove material for medicine, wood to construct shelter, and forest space for hunting sustenance staples like snails, fish and crab).[14] The Niger Delta mangrove forests directly (through raw materials) and indirectly (through forest-based products) offer economically beneficial resources for Nigerian rural and urban communities alike, with eight out of the ten most lucrative vocations dependent on thriving mangrove populations. These occupations include canoe carving, logging, timber harvesting, building, fishing, sawmilling, traditional medicine, and trading.[14]

Ecological Restoration Blueprint for Mangroves in the Niger Delta

The Center for Environment and Human Rights Development (CEHRD), a non-governmental organization situated in the Niger Delta region, collaborated with various stakeholders, including local inhabitants, initiating multiple initiatives. These initiatives aimed at educating the local populace in systematic mangrove restoration and conservation practices. The projects encompassed practical training and focused group dialogues involving local communities, governmental bodies, coastal restoration specialists, regulatory bodies, non-profit organizations, and the academic sector. These efforts resulted in the formulation of a viable framework for the restoration and conservation of mangroves. In the subsequent sections, we elaborate on the responsibilities of stakeholders in attaining sustainable mangrove restoration and conservation.

The Role of Local Communities

Mangroves in Nigeria are situated within the domains of local communities. This confers a crucial responsibility regarding the protection, conservation, and restoration of these ecosystems upon the neighboring communities. Successful mangrove restoration heavily relies on the support, approval, and active involvement of the community, constituting a significant prerequisite for success. For instance, community activities like artisanal crude oil refining have been reported to degrade mangrove ecosystems.[15] [16] Communities engage in such makeshift livelihoods to supplement subsistence and fulfill social or family obligations. Consequently, the expectations and perspectives of local communities should be incorporated into the project's objectives, planning, and execution. Mangrove restoration advocates, decision-makers, experts, and other stakeholders should mobilize and involve communities in the decision-making process. While community members may lack the technical expertise required for restoring degraded mangroves, they can identify potential endemic species that are threatened, endangered, or locally extinct, contributing to remediation and restoration decisions. Integrating this kind of indigenous knowledge can result in invaluable restoration outcomes. Additionally, community members can gather foundational data to support scientific research and reporting.[17] Engaging the community in such capacities promotes inclusivity and ensures project ownership by the local communities, thus ensuring the sustainability of mangrove restoration efforts.[18]

Transferring skills and knowledge constitutes a vital element of a mangrove restoration framework. Interactions between experts and the local populace create opportunities for mutual development and dissemination of knowledge essential for effective mangrove restoration and conservation. Collaboration and involvement of both experts and local communities, facilitated through practical training, public education on the benefits of mangrove restoration and conservation, and active participation in restoration efforts in the field, enhance ownership, support, success, and access to local advantages. Over time, community members gain restoration skills and become proficient in independently rejuvenating degraded mangroves. This transformation has been evident in the Oproama community, where CEHRD facilitated a community-driven science initiative to gather foundational data for the Oproama coastal environment.[19]

Community engagement fosters unity and cultivates peaceful cohabitation within local communities. This stems from the cultural significance and symbolic meanings that mangroves hold in coastal communities.[20] The involvement of mangroves in performing arts is a notable example. For instance, the wood of the black mangrove (Avicennia germinas) is employed in crafting "elumene" masks, and its twigs and leaves adorn the mouth of the hippopotamus masquerade during presentations.[21] The process of ecological restoration can thus establish a connection between people and nature, kindling the local population's interest in environmental concerns and nurturing reverence and care for the ecosystems.[22]

The Role of Government (Decision making and policy direction)

The governmental role in decision-making and policy direction is significant. Policies encompass how governments or private entities define, manage, and address public issues.[23] In Nigeria, a range of policy documents and instruments exist at various governance levels. At the Federal level, provisions in the 1999 Constitution, as amended, specifically Sections 20 and 16(2), highlight the need for environmental protection. Additionally, the 1989 National Policy on Environment, the Millennium Development Goals Project, and various international conventions ratified by Nigeria outline actions for environmental protection and restoration. However, some of these instruments may not fully align with the goals and policy recommendations outlined in the Geneva Road Map. Concerns also persist regarding the effectiveness of these regulatory instruments in achieving environmental sustainability.

The government bears the responsibility of formulating and enforcing a sustainable legislative framework to enhance mangrove conservation and restoration. A robust regulatory framework is essential to guide, regulate, and influence human behavior towards sustainable coastal practices, ultimately leading to successful mangrove protection and restoration. While ecological conservation policies exist, few specifically delineate requirements for mangrove protection and restoration. A thorough review of the regulations, particularly those enacted post-1960s, reveals that many of them primarily established agencies, expecting these agencies to develop environmental regulations. For instance, the Petroleum Act of 1968 mandated the Minister of Petroleum Resources to develop regulations addressing environmental degradation caused by oil spills.[24] However, since around 2001, the Nigerian National Wetland Policy, which would have been a direct wetland policy, has remained in draft form without necessary actions to formalize it into a regulation or law.[25]

Legislative instruments play a crucial role in promoting sustainable mangrove management, encouraging ecosystem conservation by stakeholders through co-ownership and effective management. Such instruments can provide incentives for investment in mangrove restoration, especially by the private sector. For instance, legislative declarations rewarding mangrove protection through co-management approaches can incentivize community vanguards, ensuring sustainable mangrove harvesting. These regulations outline governance structures and define stakeholders' roles, including experts and various professionals, in mangrove protection and restoration processes.[26]

Local ecological protection and restoration regulations are vital tools to curb detrimental environmental behavior and attitudes that contribute to ecological degradation. Existing ecological management regulations in Nigeria, however, often lack robust penalties and disincentives, inadvertently encouraging pollution and environmental harm. Addressing issues such as unsustainable mangrove harvesting necessitates contextual mangrove regulations within local communities. The government, as a decision-maker, holds the responsibility of establishing a network of mangrove protected areas, covering biodiversity hotspots to enhance conservation efforts. Developing sustainable mangrove policies that facilitate the creation of networks of mangrove conservation areas can act as a buffer zone, encouraging initiatives, research, and creativity towards mangrove conservation. Collaboration with research institutions, local communities, and charities is essential for developing localized mangrove restoration and conservation policies that drive investment, research, and mapping of endemic and endangered species for adaptive management. Participatory policies can drive community-led campaigns, fostering behavioral changes and encouraging ecosystem conservation. Engaging community volunteers in mangrove restoration is vital, and sustainable mangrove conservation policies promoting co-management frameworks can sustain community involvement in mangrove protection and restoration activities. Overall, effective legislative instruments and localized regulations are indispensable for the successful and sustainable management of mangroves.[27] [26] [28] [29]

Non-governmental organizations and charities

Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and charitable entities play a vital role in mobilizing various stakeholders, building capacity, and instigating behavioral shifts to achieve conservation and restoration objectives. NGOs focusing on environmental issues, like CEHRD, are pivotal in educating and enhancing the capabilities of local communities, government agencies, and other stakeholders in mangrove restoration processes.[30] In 2005, CEHRD pioneered community-driven mangrove restoration in the Niger Delta through practical training, awareness campaigns, skill development, and collaborative mangrove replantation efforts in oil spill-affected mangrove areas in Bodo Creek.[31] CEHRD has also published a user-friendly mangrove restoration manual specific to the Niger Delta. Similarly, the Mangrove Action Project (MAP), a prominent global advocate for mangrove conservation, regularly publishes content related to mangroves in its MAP Bulletin and has produced a guide for ecologically sound mangrove restoration. NGOs possess the ability to secure funding for mangrove restoration, a long-term endeavor requiring persistent education and sensitization efforts.

Many supported mangrove restoration projects span 3 to 5 years, allowing for short-term monitoring of initial success indicators. Consequently, NGOs are equipped to continually mobilize funding and engage in sustained monitoring of mangrove restoration initiatives. Their significant role lies in raising public awareness about sustainable mangrove management, fostering an ongoing process of restoration and conservation. NGOs mobilize the public to actively participate in environmental monitoring, promote environmental consciousness, encourage citizen science, and advocate for biodiversity conservation.

Biodiversity

The ecological importance of mangroves expands well beyond the resources of their roots and wood. Playing a key part in many fish, invertebrate, crustacean, and mollusk species’ lifecycles, mangroves offer organisms a breeding ground,[32] shelter, and sustenance (mangroves are capable of producing 3.65 tons of leaf matter per hectare per year, which is a key contribution to the food web that supports juvenile fish).[33] Mangroves offer these services to approximately 75% of the local commercially harvested fish population;[33] in a properly functioning mangrove ecosystem, this means ~1.08 tons of fish can be supported by one hectare of mangroves each year.[33] Mangroves are also used as shelter and breeding grounds by small mammals, shore birds, reptiles, and insects.[33] One study analyzing local species dependency on mangrove populations in Pagbilao Bay, Quezon, discovered that nearly 128 fish species, 56 bird species, and 9 species of paneid shrimp relied on mangrove survival for breeding and shelter requirements.[33]

Mangrove roots offer a variety of essential services to local species and native communities
OPEC oil exports by country

Beyond supplying a sundry of basic biological needs to marine and terrestrial organisms, mangrove populations are also essential in preventing erosion[32] and preserving the surrounding coastal landscape. UNEP research has demonstrated that the mangrove's robust build is efficient at reducing the total destructive capability of storms and wind surges by 70 to 90 percent.[33] Mangroves also help protect the health and overall biodiversity of surrounding ecosystems by acting as a water filter. Filtration is enabled by the mangrove's capability to absorb and store heavy metals that would otherwise result in the release of metal pollution into nearshore water bodies.[34] Mangroves are also efficient sites of carbon storage. Gail Chmura, scientist at McGill University, revealed a mangrove's carbon storing capability is greater than that of a terrestrial forest; per-year, mangroves are capable of storing 42 million tons of carbon/hectare.[35]

Threats to mangrove survival

There are many environmental threats to the mangrove forests in the Niger Delta.

Oil extraction is the largest threat to Nigeria's mangrove forests. Comprising 97 percent of Nigeria's total exports, the oil-rich Niger Delta produces up to two million barrels of crude oil a day, which has placed Nigeria as the 9th oil producing country in the world.[36] Such extensive oil extraction has come at great environmental and social cost. Since 1958, the Nigerian Federal Ministry of Environment has estimated 13 million barrels of oil have been spilled during extraction processes. These spills are the product of many factors, which include: unenforced drilling regulations, refinery leaks, pipeline corrosion, vandalism, and human error.[37] The total number of annual spills has gradually increased since 1958, from approximately 250 spills per year to 500 spills per year.[37] The Nigerian Oil Industry, which primarily extracts oil amongst the Niger Delta mangrove forests, has consequently deforested mangrove ecological zones for drilling purposes, and deteriorated the health of the surrounding mangroves.[37] Petroleum has toxicological impacts on mangrove trees, but also causes direct physical damage.[37] The toxic effects of both surface-level and sediment deposit oil exposure on mangrove health has been repeatedly scientifically documented. In 1986, scientists analyzing the impact of the Bahía las Minas oil spill on coastal vegetation reported clusters of dying mangroves in proximity to where oil had washed ashore.[37] On average, studies revealed mangrove fatality rates were highest during the first six-months of a spill; thus, fresh crude oil spills had greater toxicity than “weathered” oil.[37] Other natural experiments noted that factors such as mangrove exposure to water currents and spill contamination control plays a substantive role in predicting the extent of oil damage on a mangrove population. Oil contact with mangrove seedlings also revealed extensive damage; when placed in the presence of crude, greater than 96 percent of mangrove seedlings died.[37]

Petroleum, which comprises hydrocarbon compound contaminants such as PAHs (Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons), has been connected to plant chlorophyll damage. As a result of PAH root absorption, mangrove leaf pigmentation is altered, limiting photosynthesis.[37] Regardless of oil toxicity or soil absorption capacity, mangroves can be fatally damaged from surface-oil spills as oil coats cells that allow oxygen to reach the roots, resulting in oxygen deprivation and incapacity of necessary biological processes.[37]

Historically, petroleum's detrimental impact on delta biodiversity (including threatening mangrove existence) has sparked non-violent and violent citizen responses. Communities facing threats to health, livelihoods and prosperity[38] from the economic, environmental, and structural injustice resulting from local oil extraction have reacted together to fight for the indigenous right to existence and Niger Delta resource autonomy.[38] While some movements such as the Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP) relayed demands through non-violent protest,[38] other organizations have responded to repeated degradative practices and governmentally unenforced industry regulations through violence. Established in 2006, the Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) is a rebel militant group challenging wealth polarization, environmental disregard, and economic instability brought about by delta oil production.[39] Through monkeywrenching industry equipment, blowing-up pipelines, and kidnapping oil workers, MEND seeks to fracture Nigeria's oil economy.[40] Despite justifying their violent actions by the need to obtain justice, MEND is recognized by various international governing bodies as a terrorist organization.[38]

In addition to mangrove degradation from regional oil extraction practices, mass deforestation has threatened Niger Delta mangrove populations. A study published in 2011 by Oluseyi Fabiyi revealed that anthropogenic development was the chief agent driving deforestation in Southwestern Nigeria.[41] These anthropogenic factors included agricultural growth and urban expansion. Fabiyi argued these variables led to greater deforestation rates than forest clearing resulting from oil extraction.[41]

In a GIS analysis of deforestation patterns of Niger Delta wetlands conducted by Glory Enaruvbe and Ozien Atafo in 2014, water body area in the target location decreased by 7 percent in 11 years (between 2002 and 2013), and forest area decreased by four percent.[41] Enaruvbe and Atafo noted that locals’ perceptions of economic opportunity and increased demand for ecological services guided increased deforestation patterns.[41]

Causes of Mangrove Deforestation in Niger Delta Region

Numerous elements contribute to the depletion and deterioration of the mangrove forest within the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. These encompass reclaiming land for constructing settlements, establishing fish farms, building roads and electrical infrastructure, timber logging, gathering fuelwood, engaging in oil exploration/exploitation, along with activities linked to it, improper waste disposal, and the invasion of Nypa fruticans.

Infrastructure Development

The development of infrastructure stands as a primary factor driving mangrove deforestation in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. In recent times, particularly with the establishment of the Niger Delta Development Commission (NDDC) after extensive years of advocating against the marginalization of the Niger Delta Region (where Nigeria’s primary crude oil reserves are located), endeavors to enhance infrastructure have been initiated. However, these initiatives occasionally lead to mangrove destruction. Land reclamation for residential and public infrastructure construction represents a significant danger to the mangrove ecosystem in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. In various regions of the area, mangrove forests are being cleared to make way for housing and public amenities, such as schools, especially in mangrove areas adjacent to access roads.[42]

Fish Farming

Massive fish farming operations constitute a significant factor contributing to the deforestation and degradation of mangroves in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. An illustrative instance is evident in Buguma, Rivers State, where ONIDA, an Israeli company, engages in extensive fish farming. The establishment of this fish farm, boasting over forty ponds, resulted in the devastation and filling of a substantial area of the mangrove forest, crucial for the livelihoods of the local population. The primary motivation for situating the farm near the mangrove is to ensure a consistent supply of brackish water necessary for cultivating the targeted fish species, particularly the Barramundi, which is cultivated and imported from Australia. However, the overall contributions of such endeavors to the rural economy, considering the importation of nearly all farm necessities, including fish feed from Israel or Australia, raise significant questions.[42]

Timber and Fuel Wood Gathering

Fuel Wood Gathering in Nigeria Leading to Deforestation

The mangrove forest serves as a timber source, with its species being extensively utilized as fuel for small-scale industrial boilers due to their high thermal capacity. The red mangrove, specifically Rhizophora racemosa, stands as the most heavily exploited species, employed for various purposes including firewood, poles, and timber. The escalating demand for fuelwood prompts the depletion of mangroves in multiple regions of the Niger Delta, driven by the necessity to fulfill household energy requirements and generate income.[42]

Oil Exploration/Exploitation and related Activities

The oil and gas industry significantly contributes to mangrove fragmentation, deforestation, and degradation in the Niger Delta. Activities such as oil drilling, spillage, dredging of canals, and the construction of housing for oil workers pose substantial threats to the survival and effective functioning of the mangrove ecosystem in this region. Oil spills and leakages have inflicted significant damage on Nigeria's mangrove areas, affecting not only the mangroves themselves but also the fishing economy and overall water quality.[43]

The Menace of Nipa palm

Nypa fruticans (Nipa palm) – an invasive alien species, is another major threat to the mangrove ecosystem in the Niger Delta Region. The species which was introduced in Nigeria for the control of riverbank erosion has become a big menace to the mangrove ecosystem. The deforestation and degradation of the mangroves for firewood gathering, the construction of navigational canals, villages, and the activities of oil companies, encourage their replacement by this fast colonizer (Nypa fruticans) which does not provide the enormous ecological services provided by mangroves.[44] Tackling the menace of Nipa palm invasion of the mangrove ecosystem requires a holistic approach that will discourage mangrove deforestation and degradation, complete removal of the species in invaded areas, and massive regeneration of degraded mangroves. Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity observed that restoration of degraded habitats in addition to reintroduction of native species can enhance biological diversity and also enhance the resilience of ecosystems against future invasions.[45] Efforts should also be made towards discovering other uses of the Nipa palm that will be beneficial to man.

Other Factors

Defecation, improper waste disposal, and the unsustainable use of non-timber resources are additional contributors to mangrove degradation in the Niger Delta region. Instances of constructing public toilets that discharge waste directly into the mangroves and disposing of waste in their vicinity have become prevalent in the area. Equally concerning is the unsustainable utilization of non-timber resources such as fish, periwinkle, crab, and others.[42]

A significant factor contributing to the loss and deterioration of mangrove forests in the Niger Delta is the noticeable inadequacy in enforcing the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) regulations. Often, projects are carried out prior to conducting the EIA, and even when the assessment is conducted before project execution, the process is frequently marred by irregularities tolerated by representatives of pertinent agencies responsible for ensuring due process and upholding standards. In certain instances, approval is granted for projects with substantial potential negative environmental impacts. In the Niger Delta Region, multinational oil corporations frequently evade accountability for pollution and spills, particularly in marine and coastal ecosystems, unlike the stringent regulations observed in many developed countries. Strict adherence to and rigorous compliance with the stipulations of the EIA regulations are imperative for ensuring sustainable development.[42]

Conservation efforts

Despite exploitation, fragmentation, and degradation, no policy has been enacted in Nigeria with the sole purpose to conserve endangered mangrove forests. Although neither federal or state institutions have ratified protection efforts, citizens of the Niger Delta states have banded together in attempt to defend the depreciating mangrove populations. One coalition, the Mangrove Forest Conservation Society of Nigeria, established in 1995, has spread its vision of establishing peaceful and sustainable coexistence between regional rural development and mangrove ecosystems across numerous Niger Delta cities (such as Asaba, Benin, Calabar, Lagos, Port Harcourt, Uyo, and Yenegoa).[46]

Unintentionally affecting mangrove conservation, in 1989, the National Policy on Environment was developed in Nigeria.[47] This policy resulted in 14.2% of Nigeria's land mass qualifying as protected area, securing 988 nationally protected reserves and 12 protected areas under international conventions.[48] According to the Nigerian Department of National Parks, the reserves collectively represent a variety of Nigeria's most essential ecological zones; among these signified zones are tropical and wetland forests.[47] Despite federally declaring these 1,000 sites protected, under-regulation and mismanagement has resulted in anthropogenic exploitation of reserve resources.[47] Deforestation has been propelled by demand for bushmeat, timber, and vegetation.[47]

Example of NDVI global biosphere measurement (2002)

Although mangrove conservation policy has yet to be established in Nigeria, published studies have demonstrated the affirmative prospective impact human intervention can have on remediating and protecting mangrove forests. A 2013 GIS study conducted by Oluwagbenga Ol Orimoogunje and Opeyemi Ajibola- James analyzed the recovery capability of oil exposed mangroves in two polluted Niger Delta sites.[49] Both sites contained contaminated areas greater than 20 km 2 in size, but one site was remediated whereas the other was not. Mangrove health was monitored for four time periods via RENA and GPS imagery spanning 1986 to 2007. In 1986 (pre-spill), both locations contained a Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) value of .32. NDVI, which measures the amount of infrared energy produced by a plant, allowed researchers to determine the health of the mangrove study population based on the infrared levels reflected off the canopy surface. This number served as starting point to determine the quantitative impact oil pollution had on mangrove health.[49] In 2000, six years after the spill, NDVI values had changed. The remediated site contained a NDVI of .30 where the non-remediated site was evaluated at .27. After 2000, NDVI values began to increase in both fields, but the remediated site's NDVI remained higher than the non-remediated site (2007 remediated site had a NDVI of .36 whereas the non-remediated site's was .34).[49] This study suggested that oil caused a decline in vegetation area and health, but that with remediation, health was mostly recovered, compared to sites that were not remediated.[49]

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Afrotropical mangroves ecoregions
Red Sea mangroves Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Yemen
Central African mangroves Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Niger Delta
East African mangroves Kenya, Mozambique, Tanzania
Guinean mangroves Senegal, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast
Madagascar mangroves Madagascar
Southern Africa mangroves Mozambique, South Africa
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