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<ref name="CoL">{{Catalogue of Life |id=6Q9PJ |title=''Lichenomphalia velutina'' (Quél.) Redhead, Lutzoni, Moncalvo & Vilgalys |access-date=23 March 2024}}</ref>
<ref name="CoL">{{Catalogue of Life |id=6Q9PJ |title=''Lichenomphalia velutina'' (Quél.) Redhead, Lutzoni, Moncalvo & Vilgalys |access-date=23 March 2024}}</ref>


<ref name="Corner 1950">{{cite book |last1=Corner |first1=E.J.H. |year=1950 |title=A Monograph of ''Clavaria'' and Allied Genera |series=Annals of Botany Memoirs |volume=1 |page=640}}</ref>
<ref name="Corner 1950">{{cite book |last1=Corner |first1=E.J.H. |year=1950 |title=A Monograph of ''Clavaria'' and Allied Genera |series=Annals of Botany Memoirs |volume=1 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=London |page=640}}</ref>


<ref name="Finnish redlist">{{cite report |editor-first1=Esko |editor-last1=Hyvärinen |editor-first2=Aino |editor-last2=Juslén |editor-first3=Eija |editor-last3=Kemppainen |editor-first4=Annika |editor-last4=Uddström |editor-first5=Ulla-Maija |editor-last5=Liukko |year=2019 |title=Suomen lajien uhanalaisuus – Punainen kirja 2019. The 2019 Red List of Finnish Species |publisher=Ministry of the Environment. Finnish Environment Institute |isbn=978-952-11-4974-0 |page=291}}</ref>
<ref name="Finnish redlist">{{cite report |editor-first1=Esko |editor-last1=Hyvärinen |editor-first2=Aino |editor-last2=Juslén |editor-first3=Eija |editor-last3=Kemppainen |editor-first4=Annika |editor-last4=Uddström |editor-first5=Ulla-Maija |editor-last5=Liukko |year=2019 |title=Suomen lajien uhanalaisuus – Punainen kirja 2019. The 2019 Red List of Finnish Species |publisher=Ministry of the Environment. Finnish Environment Institute |isbn=978-952-11-4974-0 |page=291}}</ref>
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<ref name="Geitler 1955">{{cite journal |last=Geitler |first=L. |year=1955 |title=''Clavaria mucida'', eine extratropische Basidiolichene |trans-title=''Clavaria mucida'', an extratropical basidiolichen |journal=Biologisches Centralblatt |volume=74 |pages=145–159 |language=de}}</ref>
<ref name="Geitler 1955">{{cite journal |last=Geitler |first=L. |year=1955 |title=''Clavaria mucida'', eine extratropische Basidiolichene |trans-title=''Clavaria mucida'', an extratropical basidiolichen |journal=Biologisches Centralblatt |volume=74 |pages=145–159 |language=de}}</ref>


<ref name="Geitler 1956">{{cite journal |last=Geitler |first=L. |year=1956 |title=Ergänzende Beobachtungen über die extratropische Basidiolichene ''Clavaria mucida'' |trans-title=Supplementary observations on the extratropical basidiolichen ''Clavaria mucida'' |journal=Oesterr Bot Z |volume=103 |pages=164–167 |language=de}}</ref>
<ref name="Geitler 1956">{{cite journal |last=Geitler |first=L. |year=1956 |title=Ergänzende Beobachtungen über die extratropische Basidiolichene ''Clavaria mucida'' |trans-title=Supplementary observations on the extratropical basidiolichen ''Clavaria mucida'' |journal=Oesterreichische botanische Zeitschrift |volume=103 |pages=164–167 |language=de}}</ref>


<ref name="Geitler 1965">{{cite journal |last=Geitler |first=Lothar |year=1965 |title=Über die Basidiolichene ''Lentaria mucida'' var. ''hexaspora'' n. var. |trans-title=On the basidiolichen ''Lentaria mucida'' var. ''hexaspora'' n. var. |journal=Österreichische Botanische Zeitschrift |volume=112 |issue=1–2 |pages=187–190 |language=de}}</ref>
<ref name="Geitler 1965">{{cite journal |last=Geitler |first=Lothar |year=1965 |title=Über die Basidiolichene ''Lentaria mucida'' var. ''hexaspora'' n. var. |trans-title=On the basidiolichen ''Lentaria mucida'' var. ''hexaspora'' n. var. |journal=Österreichische Botanische Zeitschrift |volume=112 |issue=1–2 |pages=187–190 |jstor=43339279 |language=de}}</ref>


<ref name="Kreisel 1987">{{cite book |last=Kreisel |first=Hanns |year=1987|title=Pilzflora der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik |page=229 |publisher=Gustav Fischer Verlag |location=Jena |language=de}}</ref>
<ref name="Kreisel 1987">{{cite book |last=Kreisel |first=Hanns |year=1987|title=Pilzflora der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik |trans-title=Fungal Flora of the German Democratic Republic |page=229 |publisher=Gustav Fischer Verlag |location=Jena |language=de |isbn=978-3-334-00025-0}}</ref>


<ref name="Laursen 2009">{{cite book |last1=Laursen |first1=Gary A. |last2=Seppelt |first2=Rodney D. |title=Common Interior Alaska Cryptogams: Fungi, Lichenicolous Fungi, Lichenized Fungi, Slime Molds, Mosses, and Liverworts |publisher=University of Alaska Press |location=College, Alaska |year=2009 |page=133 |isbn=978-1-60223-058-3}}</ref>
<ref name="Laursen 2009">{{cite book |last1=Laursen |first1=Gary A. |last2=Seppelt |first2=Rodney D. |title=Common Interior Alaska Cryptogams: Fungi, Lichenicolous Fungi, Lichenized Fungi, Slime Molds, Mosses, and Liverworts |publisher=University of Alaska Press |location=College, Alaska |year=2009 |page=133 |isbn=978-1-60223-058-3}}</ref>
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<ref name="Nimis 2016">{{cite book |last1=Nimis |first1=Pier Luigi |year=2016 |title=The Lichens of Italy. A Second Annotated Catalogue |page=308 |location=Trieste |publisher=Edizioni Università di Trieste |isbn=978-88-8303-755-9}}</ref>
<ref name="Nimis 2016">{{cite book |last1=Nimis |first1=Pier Luigi |year=2016 |title=The Lichens of Italy. A Second Annotated Catalogue |page=308 |location=Trieste |publisher=Edizioni Università di Trieste |isbn=978-88-8303-755-9}}</ref>


<ref name="Oberwinkler 2012">{{cite book |last=Oberwinkler |first=F. |year=2012 |editor-last=Hock |editor-first=B. |chapter=Basidiolichens |title=The Mycota |volume=IX |publisher=Springer Verlag |location=Berlin/Heidelberg |pages=341–362}}</ref>
<ref name="Oberwinkler 2012">{{cite book |last=Oberwinkler |first=F. |year=2012 |editor-last=Hock |editor-first=Bertold |chapter=Basidiolichens |title=Fungal Associations |series=The Mycota |volume=IX |edition=3rd |publisher=Springer Verlag |location=Berlin/Heidelberg |pages=341–362 |isbn=978-3-642-30826-0 |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-30826-0_16}}</ref>


<ref name="Parmasto 2001">{{cite book |editor-first1=David |editor-last1=Moore |editor-first2=Marijke M. |editor-last2=Nauta |editor-first3=Shelley E. |editor-last3=Evans |editor-first4=Maurice |editor-last4=Rotheroe |last=Parmasto |first=Erast |year=2001 |chapter=Fungi as indicators of primeval and old-growth forests deserving protection |title=Fungal Conservation Issues and Solutions |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |pages=81–88 |isbn=978-0-511-56516-8 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511565168.006}}</ref>
<ref name="Parmasto 2001">{{cite book |editor-first1=David |editor-last1=Moore |editor-first2=Marijke M. |editor-last2=Nauta |editor-first3=Shelley E. |editor-last3=Evans |editor-first4=Maurice |editor-last4=Rotheroe |last=Parmasto |first=Erast |year=2001 |chapter=Fungi as indicators of primeval and old-growth forests deserving protection |title=Fungal Conservation Issues and Solutions |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |pages=81–88 |isbn=978-0-511-56516-8 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511565168.006}}</ref>


<ref name="Persoon 1797">{{cite book |last=Persoon |first=Christiaan Hendrik |year=1797 |title=Commentatio de Fungis Clavaeformibus |page=55 |location=Leipzig |publisher=P.P. Wolf |language=la}}</ref>
<ref name="Persoon 1797">{{cite book |last=Persoon |first=Christiaan Hendrik |year=1797 |title=Commentatio de Fungis Clavaeformibus |trans-title=A treatise on club-shaped fungi |page=55 |location=Leipzig |publisher=P.P. Wolf |language=la |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/56523034}}</ref>


<ref name="Petersen 1967">{{cite journal |last=Petersen |first=Ron |year=1967 |title=Notes on clavarioid fungi. VII. Redefinition of the ''Clavaria vernalis''–''C. mucida'' complex |journal=The American Midland Naturalist |volume=77 |issue=1 |pages=205–221 |doi=10.2307/2423440 |jstor=2423440 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274430380}}</ref>
<ref name="Petersen 1967">{{cite journal |last=Petersen |first=Ron |year=1967 |title=Notes on clavarioid fungi. VII. Redefinition of the ''Clavaria vernalis''–''C. mucida'' complex |journal=The American Midland Naturalist |volume=77 |issue=1 |pages=205–221 |doi=10.2307/2423440 |jstor=2423440 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274430380}}</ref>

Revision as of 16:51, 23 March 2024

Multiclavula mucida
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Cantharellales
Family: Hydnaceae
Genus: Multiclavula
Species:
M. mucida
Binomial name
Multiclavula mucida
Synonyms[4]
List
  • Clavaria mucida Pers. (1797)
  • Typhula mucida (Pers.) Fr. (1827)
  • Calocera mucida (Pers.) Wettst. (1886)
  • Pistillaria mucida (Pers.) Costantin & L.M.Dufour (1891)
  • Lentaria mucida (Pers.) Corner (1950)[1]
  • Stichoclavaria mucida (Pers.) Paechn. (1987)[2]
  • Clavaria mucida var. rosea Bres. (1916)
  • Lentaria mucida var. hexaspora Geitler (1965)[3]

Multiclavula mucida is a globally distributed species of basidiolichen belonging to the family Hydnaceae.[5] Since its initial classification by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon in 1797, the species has been described under various synonyms and associated with multiple genera. Persoon described its fruiting bodies as gregarious (i.e. growing in groups but separate at the base), varying from simple to branching structures, predominantly whitish in colour with yellow to brownish tips. He also noted its frequent appearance in autumn on decaying, moist wood, often covered with a greenish crust necessary for its growth.

The cosmopolitan distribution of Multiclavula mucida and its variability in appearance have led to a complex nomenclature and historical confusion with other species and genera. Though widespread, it is considered rare in Europe and faces threats in many countries. It can be distinguished from similar species such as Multiclavula petricola, M. vernalis, M. coronilla, and Clavicorona taxophila by differences in basidiospore size, growth substrate, fruiting body structure, and microscopic features, despite similarities in colour and general form.

Systematics

Historical taxonomy

The fungus was first formally described by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon in 1797, as Clavaria mucida. Persoon characterised the fungus as gregarious, small, and either simple or branching. He noted its autumnal appearance on decaying, moist tree trunks covered with a crust or green powder, sometimes extending over a wide area. He described each specimen of the species as small and slender, occurring in both simple and more frequently in branched forms. The initial growth stage is marked by a thickened, wrinkled, and slightly curved apex. In branched specimens, the structure divides into thin, diverging, sharp branches originating from the middle or base. Persoon described the flesh as fleshy but not very tenacious, primarily whitish with the tip of the fungus being more intensely ochre in simpler forms, growing on a thin, whitish substrate or tomentum. He questioned the unique nature of the greenish crust common to this species, noting that it seemed necessary for its growth but disappeared when dried. Additionally, Persoon considered whether what he considered related species, Ramaria ornithopodoides and Clavaria albida, due to their significant size and branching nature, should be classified together with Clavaria mucida or recognised as distinct species.[6]

The fungus has acquired several synonyms as a result of having been transferred to different genera in its taxonomic history. After its initial placement in Clavaria, it has been proposed for transfer to Typhula (by Elias Fries in 1827), Calocera (Richard Wettstein, 1886), Pistillaria (Julien Noël Costantin and Léon Marie Dufour, 1891), Lentaria (E. J. H. Corner, 1950), and Stichoclavaria (Eckehard Paechnatz, 1987).[4] American mycologist Ron Petersen, in a 1967 publication transferred the taxon to the newly circumscribed genus Multiclavula in 1967. Before Corner's 1950 monograph on clavarioid fungi,[1] little attention was given to hyphal structure and morphology in their taxonomy. Despite Corner's extensive literature compilation, he couldn't inspect many type specimens, leading to reliance on past reports for species reclassification. During Petersen's study of Clavulinopsis and comparing it to species in Lentaria's subgenus Lentariopsis as defined by Corner, it became clear that several species across both genera could be congeneric. Corner himself was uncertain about the internal relationships within Lentaria, particularly about the evolutionary connections between its species and those in the Ramaria stricta series. This ambiguity led Petersen to reevaluate the genera housing these fungi.[7]

Current classification

Clavulinopsis are mostly terrestrial species, characterised by white, thin- to slightly thick-walled spores, and monomitic hyphae (a type of fungal tissue composed of uniformly structured hyphae). In contrast, Lentaria, exemplified by L. surculus, usually includes lignicolous species with thicker-walled hyphae and white, thin-walled spores. Species within Lentaria can be divided into two distinct groups. These groups do not align with Corner's subgenera, necessitating the establishment of a new genus.[7] As for nomenclature, several historical attempts to classify the C. mucida group under various genera were invalidated due to prior usage or misclassification. After reviewing relevant type specimens, especially those related to Lentariopsis, Petersen decided that the subgenus should merge with Lentaria, leaving the C. mucida complex in need of a new generic name, hence, the circumscription of Multiclavula.[7]

Etymology and vernacular names

The species epithet mucida is from the Latin word mucidum, meaning "moldy" or "slimy"; the genus name Multiclavula means "many clubs".[8] A variety of vernacular names have been applied to this fungus in North American literature. These include "scum lover",[9] "club lichen",[10] "common club mushroom lichen",[11] and "frail bones".[8]

Description

The thallus appears as a green, gelatinous film with rounded to flattened structures that contain coccomyxoid algae.

In the thallus of Multiclavula mucida, the algae are not merely scattered. Instead, they are organised into small, closely situated globules embedded in a gelatinous matrix on moist, rotting wood.[12] This Botrydina-type thallus structure, common in basidiolichens, serves multiple functions. It protects the algae from UV light and desiccation, while ensuring close contact through a hyphal network that provides a continuous water and minerals supply.[13] The fruiting bodies (basidiocarps) are typically simple to lobed and can reach up to 2 cm (0.79 in) in height. They are waxy-tough but can become slimy, transitioning from white or creamy colour to grey or pale tan as they mature. These structures often dry to show a pure white tip.[7] The fruiting bodies' stickiness often causes debris to adhere to their surfaces. The algal partners are encapsulated in tiny pockets of fungal tissue, yet they retain a loose, unstructured form, manifesting as a green granular crust where the fungus produces its fruiting bodies. Despite their mutualistic relationship, both the algae and the fungus maintain their individual morphology.[14] The relationship between coccomyxoid green algae and Multiclavula mucida was documented by Geitler in 1955, noting that the algae are larger within the lichen than when free-living.[15] He suggested in 1956 that this size difference could be due to a decrease in algal division frequency induced by the fungal partner, the mycobiont.[16] Using electron microscopy, Hiroshi Masumoto identified the photobiont partner of Multiclavula mucida as Elliptochloris subsphaerica.[17]

The fungus's internal structure features thin to slightly thick-walled hyphae. These threads are generally parallel, interlocking, and often merged, showing many branching and connecting points (anastomoses). These hyphae also feature clamp connections, which are small bridge-like structures connecting the cells, and can be up to 200 µm long.[7]

Below the surface layer, thinner, more twisted hyphae form the basidia as side branches. Basidia are typically short and narrow, with four to six outgrowths (sterigmata) from which spores are released. They measure 15–25 by 4–6 µm. The spores themselves are ovoid to ellipsoid, smooth, and can contain one or two oil droplets (guttulate), appearing white in spore prints and measuring 4.5–7.7 by 1.8–3.2 µm.[7] Multiclavula mucida does not react with any of the standard chemical spot tests and is not known to contain any secondary metabolites (lichen products).[11]

David Arora, in his popular field guide Mushrooms Demystified, describes the edibility of these tiny and temporary fruit bodies as "utterly inconsequential".[9]

Similar species

Clavicorona taxophila
Multiclavula vernalis

Multiclavula mucida shares similarities with the Japanese species Multiclavula petricola. They resemble each other in the colour and general structure of their fruiting bodies, which are typically white and primarily unbranched. However, the two species differ significantly in the size of their basidiospores: those of M. mucida measure 4.5–7.7 µm in length, which are shorter than the 7.3–9.5 µm-basidiospores of M. petricola. Additionally, while M. mucida typically grows on decaying wood, M. petricola prefers rocky substrates.[18] Multiclavula vernalis, while somewhat similar in appearance to M. mucida, is distinguished by its orange colour, its preference for growing on soil, and the presence of cystidia.[9] Multiclavula coronilla, which grows on similar substrates, bears resemblance but can be differentiated by its shorter and simpler (unbranched) fruiting bodies, which are up to 1 cm tall, and its by its basidia, which have 6 to 8 sterigmata. Differentiating these two species typically requires microscopic examination.[11]

Another species resembling M. mucida is Clavicorona taxophila. This small, whitish species, characterised by a broadened, flattened tip, typically grows on twigs, needles, and other types of debris, rather than amidst scum on rotting wood.[9] In the Neotropics, Multiclavula mucida closely resembles Sulzbacheromyces leucodontium in appearance. However, their ecological preferences differ; M. mucida mainly grows on decaying logs, while S. leucodontium typically inhabits terrestrial environments in lowland and sub-lowland forests. Additionally, Multiclavula species are more commonly found in mountainous regions.[19]

Habitat and distribution

The scum lover fruiting gregariously on a rotting log in Big Run State Park, Maryland, USA

This species is commonly found on decomposing wood, often in the presence of algae.[7] It thrives on a wide variety of substrates, including bamboo,[20] beech,[21] cedar,[22] poplar, and oak.[23] In Central Europe, coniferous wood is a particularly favoured substrate.[12] Multiclavula mucida is widely distributed, found in Asia, Europe, North and South America, and possibly Australia,[7][11] with its North American range extending as far north as Alaska.[24] The discovery of Multiclavula mucida at unusually low elevations, specifically around 130 to 135 m (427 to 443 ft) above sea level in the Bienwald area of Rhineland-Palatinate, has prompted a reevaluation of its distribution and naming inconsistencies across different scientific literatures. Unlike other members of its genus, which prefer sandy soils, this species predominantly relies on rotting wood in moist environments.[25] Lothar Geitler first identified this species an extratropical lichen in 1955,[15] challenging the then-prevailing view that basidiolichens were exclusively tropical.[12]

Previously considered native to Northern Europe and the mountains of Central Europe, Multiclavula mucida has been increasingly observed across most European countries and globally. This wider distribution may be linked to the establishment and maintenance of natural forest reserves, which support the decay of thick logs that provide a suitable habitat. Historically, the species has faced declines due to intensive forestry and environmental pollution, such as soil acidification from sulfur dioxide emissions, which damage its natural habitats.[25] Moreover, this fungus has been documented in regions as far-reaching as Australia, including Tasmania, and New Zealand.[26]

Conservation

Multiclavula mucida has been categorised differently in mycological and lichenological circles, leading to its varying status in conservation lists. In Germany, for example, it has been listed under different categories in the Red List of endangered plants and macrofungi, reflecting a disparity in its assessment between being recognised as a fungus and as a lichen.[25] In Finland's Regional Red List, it is classified as endangered, with a population size of less than 2,500 individuals and a continual decline.[27] In Lithuania, it is considered very rare, being limited to only 1–3 known localities,[28] and in Estonia, it is categorised as vulnerable.[29] In the latter country, it is considered an indicator of old-growth forest. These primeval forests, where the lichen is found, are increasingly rare in Europe and are mainly preserved in nature reserves.[30] Because of its small size and seasonal appearance, Multiclavula mucida has been described as inconspicuous and easy to overlook.[31][32]

References

  1. ^ a b Corner, E.J.H. (1950). A Monograph of Clavaria and Allied Genera. Annals of Botany Memoirs. Vol. 1. London: Oxford University Press. p. 640.
  2. ^ Kreisel, Hanns (1987). Pilzflora der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik [Fungal Flora of the German Democratic Republic] (in German). Jena: Gustav Fischer Verlag. p. 229. ISBN 978-3-334-00025-0.
  3. ^ Geitler, Lothar (1965). "Über die Basidiolichene Lentaria mucida var. hexaspora n. var" [On the basidiolichen Lentaria mucida var. hexaspora n. var.]. Österreichische Botanische Zeitschrift (in German). 112 (1–2): 187–190. JSTOR 43339279.
  4. ^ a b "GSD Species Synonymy. Current Name: Multiclavula mucida (Pers.) R.H. Petersen, Am. Midl. Nat. 77: 212 (1967)". Species Fungorum. Retrieved 23 March 2024.
  5. ^ "Lichenomphalia velutina (Quél.) Redhead, Lutzoni, Moncalvo & Vilgalys". Catalogue of Life. Species 2000: Leiden, the Netherlands. Retrieved 23 March 2024.
  6. ^ Persoon, Christiaan Hendrik (1797). Commentatio de Fungis Clavaeformibus [A treatise on club-shaped fungi] (in Latin). Leipzig: P.P. Wolf. p. 55.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h Petersen, Ron (1967). "Notes on clavarioid fungi. VII. Redefinition of the Clavaria vernalis–C. mucida complex". The American Midland Naturalist. 77 (1): 205–221. doi:10.2307/2423440. JSTOR 2423440.
  8. ^ a b Tripp, Erin A.; Lendemer, James C. (2020). Field Guide to the Lichens of Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Knoxville: The University of Tennessee Press. p. 297. ISBN 978-1-62190-514-1.
  9. ^ a b c d Arora, David (1986). Mushrooms Demystified: A Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi. Berkeley, California: Ten Speed Press. p. 636. ISBN 978-0-89815-169-5.
  10. ^ Laursen, Gary A.; Seppelt, Rodney D. (2009). Common Interior Alaska Cryptogams: Fungi, Lichenicolous Fungi, Lichenized Fungi, Slime Molds, Mosses, and Liverworts. College, Alaska: University of Alaska Press. p. 133. ISBN 978-1-60223-058-3.
  11. ^ a b c d McMullin, R. Troy (2023). Lichens. The Macrolichens of Ontario and the Great Lakes Region of the United States. Firefly Books. p. 299. ISBN 978-0-228-10369-1.
  12. ^ a b c Oberwinkler, F. (2012). "Basidiolichens". In Hock, Bertold (ed.). Fungal Associations. The Mycota. Vol. IX (3rd ed.). Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer Verlag. pp. 341–362. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-30826-0_16. ISBN 978-3-642-30826-0.
  13. ^ Voitk, Andrus (2016). "Multiclavula mucida" (PDF). Omphalina. 7 (8): 20–21.
  14. ^ Voitk, Andrus; Ohenoja, Esteri (2011). "Genus Multiclavula in Newfoundland and Labrador" (PDF). Fungi. 4 (2): 26–31.
  15. ^ a b Geitler, L. (1955). "Clavaria mucida, eine extratropische Basidiolichene" [Clavaria mucida, an extratropical basidiolichen]. Biologisches Centralblatt (in German). 74: 145–159.
  16. ^ Geitler, L. (1956). "Ergänzende Beobachtungen über die extratropische Basidiolichene Clavaria mucida" [Supplementary observations on the extratropical basidiolichen Clavaria mucida]. Oesterreichische botanische Zeitschrift (in German). 103: 164–167.
  17. ^ Masumoto, H. (2020). Taxonomic studies on lichenized basidiomycetes and their photobionts in Japan: towards the establishment of a model co-culture system of lichen symbiosis (PDF) (Ph.D. thesis). University of Tsukuba.
  18. ^ Masumoto, Hiroshi; Degawa, Yousuke (2020). "Multiclavula petricola sp. nov. (Cantharellales, Basidiomycota), a new clavarioid and lichenized fungus growing on rocks". Mycoscience. 61 (4): 155–159. doi:10.1016/j.myc.2020.03.004.
  19. ^ Coca, Luis Fernando; Gómez, Salomé Gómez; Guillermo, Jorge Guzmán; Trujillo, Edwin Trujillo; Clavijo, Laura; Zuluaga, Alejandro; Dal Forno, Manuela; Lumbsch, H. Thorsten (2023). "Sulzbacheromyces leucodontium (Basidiomycota, Lepidostromataceae), a new species of basidiolichen widely distributed in the Neotropics". Phytotaxa. 597 (2): 153–164. doi:10.11646/phytotaxa.597.2.5.
  20. ^ Teng, S.C. (1996). Korf, Richard (ed.). Fungi of China (1st ed.). Ithaca, New York: Mycotaxon. p. 298. ISBN 978-0-930845-05-6.
  21. ^ Fritz, Örjan (2009). "Mykologivecka 2009 vid Nissaström – en halländsk hotspot" [Mycology Week 2009 at Nissaström – a Halland hotspot]. Svensk Mykologisk Tidskrift (in Swedish). 30 (2): 35–45.
  22. ^ Brodo, Irwin M.; Lee, Robert E.; Freebury, Colin; Wong, Pak Yau; Lewis, Christopher J.; McMullin, R. Troy (2021). "Additions to the lichens, allied fungi, and lichenicolous fungi of the Ottawa region in Ontario and Quebec, with reflections on a changing biota". The Canadian Field Naturalist. 135 (1): 1–27. doi:10.22621/cfn.v135i1.2557.
  23. ^ Shiryaev, Anton (2008). "New and interesting clavarioid fungi from the hemiboreal zone of Finland" (PDF). Karstenia. 48: 29–32.
  24. ^ Spribille, Toby; Fryday, Alan M.; Hampton-Miller, Celia J.; Ahti, Teuvo; Dillman, Karen; Thor, Göran; Tonsberg, Tor; Schirokauer, Dave, eds. (2023). Compendium of the Lichens and Associated Fungi of Alaska. Bibliothecia Lichenologica. J. Cramer. p. 263. doi:10.1127/bibl_lich/2023/112. ISBN 978-3-443-58093-3.
  25. ^ a b c Voker, John; Haedeke, Jörg (2010). "Neufund von Multiclavula mucida in Rheinland-Pfalz mit Bemerkungen zur Verbreitung und Gefährdung der Art" [New discovery of Multiclavula mucida in Rhineland-Palatinate with remarks on the distribution and endangerment of the species]. Herzogia. 25 (2): 287–292. doi:10.13158/heia.25.2.2010.287.
  26. ^ Petersen, Ronald H.; Kantvilas, Gintaras (1986). "The three lichen-forming clavarioid fungi from Tasmania". Australian Journal of Botany. 34 (2): 217–222. doi:10.1071/BT9860217.
  27. ^ Hyvärinen, Esko; Juslén, Aino; Kemppainen, Eija; Uddström, Annika; Liukko, Ulla-Maija, eds. (2019). Suomen lajien uhanalaisuus – Punainen kirja 2019. The 2019 Red List of Finnish Species (Report). Ministry of the Environment. Finnish Environment Institute. p. 291. ISBN 978-952-11-4974-0.
  28. ^ Motiejūnaitė, Jurga (2017). "Supplemented checklist of lichens and allied fungi of Lithuania". Botanica Lithuanica. 23 (2): 89–106 [97]. doi:10.1515/botlit-2017-0011.
  29. ^ Lõhmus, Piret; Marmor, Liis; Jüriado, Inga; Suija, Ave; Oja, Ede; Degtjarenko, Polina; Randlane, Tiina (2019). "Red List of Estonian lichens: revision in 2019". Folia Cryptogamica Estonica. 56: 72. doi:10.12697/fce.2019.56.07.
  30. ^ Parmasto, Erast (2001). "Fungi as indicators of primeval and old-growth forests deserving protection". In Moore, David; Nauta, Marijke M.; Evans, Shelley E.; Rotheroe, Maurice (eds.). Fungal Conservation Issues and Solutions. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 81–88. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511565168.006. ISBN 978-0-511-56516-8.
  31. ^ Nimis, Pier Luigi (2016). The Lichens of Italy. A Second Annotated Catalogue. Trieste: Edizioni Università di Trieste. p. 308. ISBN 978-88-8303-755-9.
  32. ^ Łubeka, Anna; Kukwab, Martin; Jaroszewiczc, Bogdan; Czortek, Patryk (2020). "Identifying mechanisms shaping lichen functional diversity in a primeval forest". Forest Ecology and Management. 475: e118434. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2020.118434.
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