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An '''anxiogenic''' or '''panicogenic''' substance is one that causes [[anxiety]]. This effect is in contrast to [[anxiolytic]] agents, which inhibits anxiety. Together these categories of [[Psychoactive drug|psychoactive]] compounds may be referred to as [[anxiotropic]] compounds.
An '''anxiogenic''' or '''panicogenic''' substance is one that causes [[anxiety]]. This effect is in contrast to [[anxiolytic]] agents, which inhibits anxiety. Together these categories of [[Psychoactive drug|psychoactive]] compounds may be referred to as [[anxiotropic]] compounds.


==Experimental Studies==
Anxiogenic effects can be measured by, for example, the [[hole-board test]] in rats and mice.<ref name="pmid9683010">{{cite journal |vauthors=Takeda H, Tsuji M, Matsumiya T | title = Changes in head-dipping behavior in the hole-board test reflect the anxiogenic and/or anxiolytic state in mice | journal = European Journal of Pharmacology | volume = 350 | issue = 1 | pages = 21–9 |date=May 1998 | pmid = 9683010 | doi = 10.1016/S0014-2999(98)00223-4}}</ref> A number of agents are used to provoke anxiety (anxiogens) or panic (panicogens) in experimental models. Some of the most common substances are: [[carbon dioxide]] (as [[carbogen]]), [[sodium lactate]], [[cocaine]], [[substituted amphetamine]]s, [[caffeine]], [[L-DOPA]], [[methylphenidate]], [[modafinil]], [[GABA antagonist]]s such as [[DMCM]], [[FG-7142]] and [[ZK-93426]], [[Serotonin|serotonergic]] agents such as [[1-(3-Chlorophenyl)piperazine|mCPP]] and [[LY-293,284]], [[adrenergic agents]] such as [[yohimbine]], psychoactive agents such as [[THC]] and [[LSD]] in susceptible individuals, [[antipsychotics]]/[[dopamine antagonist]]s such as [[ecopipam]] and [[reserpine]], and [[cholecystokinin]] (CCK) (especially the tetrapeptide and octapeptide fragments [[CCK-4]] and [[CCK-8]]). Sodium lactate given intravenously has been proven to cause [[panic attacks]] in people with a panic disorder but not in people with no such history.<ref name="HollanderSimeon2003">{{cite book | author1 = Eric Hollander | author2 = Daphne Simeon | title = Concise Guide to Anxiety Disorders | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=qlXxu9D39xcC&pg=RA1-PA83 | accessdate = 13 May 2012 | year = 2003 | publisher = American Psychiatric Pub | isbn = 978-1-58562-080-7 | page = 1}}</ref>

Anxiogenic effects can be measured by, for example, the [[hole-board test]] in rats and mice.<ref name="pmid9683010">{{cite journal |vauthors=Takeda H, Tsuji M, Matsumiya T | title = Changes in head-dipping behavior in the hole-board test reflect the anxiogenic and/or anxiolytic state in mice | journal = European Journal of Pharmacology | volume = 350 | issue = 1 | pages = 21–9 |date=May 1998 | pmid = 9683010 | doi = 10.1016/S0014-2999(98)00223-4}}</ref> A number of agents are used to provoke anxiety (anxiogens) or panic (panicogens) in experimental models.

==Mechanisms of Action==
Anxiogenic substances typically work through affecting levels of neurotransmitters such as [[dopamine]], [[epinephrine]], [[gamma-aminobutyric acid]] (GABA), [[norepinephrine]] (NE), and [[serotonin]] in the [[central nervous system]] (CNS). Some substances may alter functioning in the [[HPA axis]], the neuroendocrine system that mediates responses to stress, where dysfunction has been linked to anxiety and panic disorders.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Juruena | first1 = M. F. | last2 = Eror | first2 = F. | last3 = Cleare | first3 = A. J. |year=2020 |series=Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology |title = Anxiety Disorders | chapter = The Role of Early Life Stress in HPA Axis and Anxiety | pages = 141-153}}</ref>

Some substances, such as [[caffeine]]<ref name="StzainbergChen2012">{{cite book | vauthors=Sztainberg Y, Chen A |year=2020 | title = Handbook of Neuroendocrinology | publisher = Academic Press| year=2012 | chapter = Neuropeptide Regulation of Stress-Induced Behavior: Insights from the CRF/Urocortin Family | pages = 355-375 | ISBN = 9780123750976 }}</ref> and [[sodium lactate]],<ref name="HollanderSimeon2003"></ref> are largely reported to have anxiogenic effects only if they are consumed or taken by people with pre-existing anxiety or panic disorders.

==Anxiogenic Substances==
===Psychoactive Substances===
A psychoactive substance is one that alters the functioning of the nervous system to produce changes in cognition and behaviour and include commonly consumed substances such as caffeine and nicotine. Though not typically the desired response, several of these compounds may have anxiogenic side effects.

====Caffeine====
Caffeine, found in tea and coffee, acts as an adenosine receptor antagonist. Adenosine receptors are involved in mood regulation among other functions, with its antagonists linked to general anxiogenic effects, and specific receptors, such as the [[Adenosine_A2A_receptor|A<sub>2A</sub> receptor]]
disorders <ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Calker | first1 = D. | last2 = Biber | first2 = K. | last3 = Domschke |first3 = K. | last4 = Serchov | first4 = T. | year = 2019 | journal = Journal of Neurochemistry | title = The role of adenosine receptors in mood and anxiety disorders. | volume = 151 | issue = 1 | pages = 11-27 | doi = 10.1111/jnc.14841}}</ref>

However, research suggests that for caffeine to have notable anxiogenic effects when consumed, a person needs to have a pre-existing anxiety or panic disorder, and to consume a large amount of caffeine (5 cups or more).<ref name="StzainbergChen2012"></ref>

====Nicotine====
[[Nicotine]], found in tobacco products, binds to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nACHRs), that may affect the function of pathways implicated with stress brains and anxiety.<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Picciotto |first1 = M. R. | last2 = Brunzell | first2 = D. H. |last3 = Caldarone | first3 = B. J. | year = 2002 | journal = Neuroreport | volume = 13 | issue = 9 | title = Effect of nicotine and nicotinic receptors on anxiety and depression | pages = 1097-1106 | doi= 10.1097/00001756-200207020-00006}}</ref> Though nicotine is typically associated with a reduction in levels of anxiety, animal studies have found that at higher dosages, nicotine may have anxiogenic effects compared to its typical anxiolytic effects at lower dosages.<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Fite |first1 = S. E. | last2 = Kenny | first2 = P. J. | last3 = Ouagazzal | first3 = A.-M. | year=1998 | title = Bimodal modulation by nicotine of anxiety in the social interaction test: Role of the dorsal hippocampus. | journal = Behavioural Neuroscience | volume = 112 | issue = 6 | pages = 1423-1429 | doi = 10.1037/0735-7044.112.6.1423}}</ref>

===Adrenergic Agents===
Adrenergic agents affect the levels of norepinephrine and epinephrine in the nervous system. NE is a neurotransmitter associated with the regulation of various cognitive functions including stress responses, arousal, vigilance, and anxiety.

[[Yohimbine]] is an adrenergic agent that increases the levels of NE through inhibiting the absorption of NE by blocking the receptors on noradrenergic neurons. Research suggests that it can lead to a mildly anxious state <ref>FIND THIS</ref> or worsen panic, anxiety, and related symptoms in PTSD patients.<ref>{{cite journal |last = Southwick | first = S. M. |year = 1993 | title = Abnormal Noradrenergic Function in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. | journal = Archives of General Psychiatry | volume = 50 | issue = 4 | page = 266 | doi = 10.1001/archpsyc.1993.01820160036003}}</ref>

===Serotonergic Agents===
Serotonergic agents affect the neurotransmission pathways that involve serotonin, a neurotransmitter associated with mood regulation. Serotonin agonists can bind to and activate serotonin receptors, increasing the levels of serotonin in the CNS. Research supports the resulting anxiogenic effects of agents such as [[LY-293,284]] and [[1-(3-Chlorophenyl)piperazine|mCPP]]
<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Abrams | first1 = J. K. | last2 = Johnson | first2 = P. L. | last3 = Hay-Schmidt | first3 = A. | last4 = Mikkelsen | first4 = J. D. | last5 = Shekhar | first5 = A. | last6 = Lowry | first6 = C. A. | journal = Neuroscience | title = Serotonergic systems associated with arousal and vigilance behaviors following administration of anxiogenic drugs | volume = 133 | issue = 4 | year = 2005 | pages = 983-997 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.03.025 }}</ref>
<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kennett | first1 = G. A. | last2 = Whitton | first2 = P. | last3 = Shah | first3 = K. | last4 = Curzon | first4 = G. | title = Anxiogenic-like effects of mCPP and TFMPP in animal models are opposed by 5-HT1C receptor antagonists | journal = European Journal of Pharmacology | volume = 164 | issue = 3 | year = 1989 | pages = 445-454 | doi = 10.1016/0014-2999(89)90252-5}} </ref>
in the CNS through this serotonin mechanism.

===Antibiotics===
[[Quinolone antibiotic | Fluroquinolones]] (FQs) are a type of antibiotic that have been linked to increased levels of anxiety and panic attacks <ref name="kaur2016">{{cite journal | last1 = Kaur | first1 = K. | last2 = Fayad | first2 = R. | last3 = Saxena | first3 = A. | last4 = Frizzell | first4 = N. | last5 = Chanda | first5 = A. | last6 = Das | first6 = S. | last7 = Chatterjee | first7 = S. | last8= Hegde | first8= S. | last9 = Baliga | first9 = M. S. | last10 = Ponemone | first10 = V. | last11 = Rorro | first11 = M. | last12 = Greene | first12 = J. | last13 = Elraheb | first13 = Y. | last14 = Redd | first14= A. J. | last15= Bian
| first15 = J. | last16 = Restaino | first16 = J. | last17= Norris | first17 = L. B. | last18 = Qureshi | first18= Z. P.
| last19 = Love | first19 = B. L. | last20 = Brookstaver | first20 =B. | last21 = Georgantopoulos | first21 = P. | last22 = Sartor | first22 = O. | last23 = Raisch | first23 =D. W. | last24= Rao | first24= G. | last25= Lu | first25= K. | last26= Ray | first26= P. | last27= Hrusheshky | first27= W. | last28= Schulz | first28= R. | last29= Ablin | first29=R. | last30= Noxon | first30=V. | last31= Bennett | first31=C. L. | title = Fluoroquinolone-related neuropsychiatric and mitochondrial toxicity: a collaborative investigation by scientists and members of a social network. | journal = J Community Support Oncol. | year = 2016 | volume = 14 | issue = 2 | pages = 54-65 | doi = 10.12788/jcso.0167 | PMID = 26955658}}</ref>, psychotic symptoms <ref name="PiotrHubska2023">{{cite journal | last1 = Piotr | first1 = Wierzbiński | last2 = Hubska | first2 = J.| last3 = Henzler | first3 = M. | last4 = Kucharski | first4 = B. | last5 = Bies | first5 = R. R. | last6 = Marek | first6 = Krzystanek | year = 2023 | title = Depressive and Other Adverse CNS Effects of Fluoroquinolones. | journal = Pharmaceuticals, | volume = 16 | issue = 8 | pages =1105–1105. | doi = 10.3390/ph16081105 }}</ref>, and depression <ref name="kaur2016"></ref> <ref name="PiotrHubska2023"></ref>, with adverse neuropsychiatric reactions estimated to occur in 1-4.4% of patients, across a range of mild to more severe cases

The mechanism behind this action is unclear however, with some researchers suggesting that FQs may act as low-affinity GABA-A antagonists <ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Tomé | first1= A. M. | last2= Filipe | first2= A. | year= 2011 | title = Quinolones | journal= Drug Safety | volume= 34 | issue= 6 | pages= 465–488| doi = 10.2165/11587280-000000000-00000}}</ref>, and others positing that its interactions with [[N-methyl-D-aspartate]] (NMDA) receptors, which have been associated with fear, anxiety, and depression, may be responsible for the anxiogenic effects <ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Barkus | first1= Christopher | last2= McHugh | first2= Stephen B. | last3= Sprengel | first3= Rolf | last4= Seeburg | first4= Peter H. | last5= Rawlins | first5= J. Nicholas P. | last6= Bannerman | first6= David M. | title = Hippocampal NMDA receptors and anxiety: At the interface between cognition and emotion | journal = European Journal of Pharmacology | volume = 626 | issue = 1 | year = 2010 | pages = 49-56 | ISSN = 0014-2999 | doi = 10.1016/j.ejphar.2009.10.014}}</ref><ref> {{cite journal | last1 = Zareifopoulos | first1 = N. | last2 = Panayiotakopoulos | first2 = G. | year = 2017 | title = Neuropsychiatric Effects of Antimicrobial Agents. | journal = Clinical Drug Investigation | volume = 37 | issue = 5 | pages = 423–437 | doi = 10.1007/s40261-017-0498-z}}</ref>

===Sodium Lactate===

[[Sodium lactate]] given intravenously has been proven to cause [[panic attacks]] in people with a panic disorder but not in people with no such history.<ref name="HollanderSimeon2003">{{cite book | author1 = Eric Hollander | author2 = Daphne Simeon | title = Concise Guide to Anxiety Disorders | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=qlXxu9D39xcC&pg=RA1-PA83 | accessdate = 13 May 2012 | year = 2003 | publisher = American Psychiatric Pub | isbn = 978-1-58562-080-7 | page = 1}}</ref>

===Miscellaneous===

Other substances that may have anxiogenic effects include:
* [[carbon dioxide]] (as a [[carbogen]]),
* [[cocaine]]
* [[substituted amphetamine]]s
* [[L-DOPA]]
* [[methylphenidate]]
* [[modafinil]]
* [[GABA antagonist]]s such as [[DMCM]], [[FG-7142]] and [[ZK-93426]]
* psychoactive agents such as [[THC]] and [[LSD]] in susceptible individuals
* [[antipsychotics]]/[[dopamine antagonist]]s such as [[ecopipam]] and [[reserpine]]
* [[cholecystokinin]] (CCK) (especially the tetrapeptide and octapeptide fragments [[CCK-4]] and [[Sincalide|CCK-8]])

The GABA<sub>A</sub> receptor [[negative allosteric modulator]] [[flumazenil]] can cause panic attacks in people with panic disorder.
The GABA<sub>A</sub> receptor [[negative allosteric modulator]] [[flumazenil]] can cause panic attacks in people with panic disorder.


==Anxiolytic Substances==
[[Anxiolytic]] substances have the opposite effect in that they reduce anxiety. The most common class of anxiolytic drugs are the [[benzodiazepine]]s. However, studies suggest that benzodiazepines may be anxiogenic in the long term.<ref>Galanter, Marc (1 July 2008). The American Psychiatric Publishing Textbook of Substance Abuse Treatment (American Psychiatric Press Textbook of Substance Abuse Treatment) (4 ed.). American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc. p. 197. {{ISBN|978-1-58562-276-4}}.</ref> [[Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors]] are commonly prescribed [[antidepressant]]s that treat anxiety in the long term. However, SSRIs are ineffective in the short-term treatment of acute panic attacks or acute anxiety.

Anxiolytic substances have the opposite effect to anxiogenic substances in that they reduce levels of anxiety. Some of these are used in psychopharmacotherapy as antidepressants to treat a range of mental health conditions, including various types of anxiety disorders, panic disorders, and depression. Typical antidepressants prescribed in psychiatry today include [[selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors]] (SSRIs) and [[benzodiazepines]].

Though these substances are typically used to decrease anxiety through affecting levels of neurotransmitters, some may have anxiogenic effects.

===SSRIs===
SSRIs are a commonly prescribed type of antidepressants that are used to treat anxiety and depression in the long term by increasing levels of serotonin in the CNS through blocking the reabsorption of serotonin. However, SSRIs are ineffective in the short-term treatment of acute panic attacks or acute anxiety.

Clinical research suggests that SSRIs may have a biphasic response, with research suggesting that [[citalopram]] may have an immediate anxiogenic effects from one dosage but long-term anxiolytic effects after three dosages <ref> {{cite journal | last1 = Koek, | first1 = W. | last2 = Mitchell, | first2 = N. C., | last3 = Daws, | first3 = L. C. | year = 2018 | title= Biphasic effects of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors on anxiety. | journal = Behavioural Pharmacology, | volume = 29 | issue = 4 | pages = 365–369 | doi = 10.1097/fbp.0000000000000345 }} </ref><ref> {{cite journal | last1 = Mombereau, | first1 = C. | last2 = Gur, | first2 = T. L. | last3 = Onksen | first3 = J. | last4 = Blendy | first4 = J. A. | year = 2009 | title = Differential effects of acute and repeated citalopram in mouse models of anxiety and depression. | journal = The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, | volume = 13 | issue = 03 | page = 321 | doi = 10.1017/s1461145709990630 }} </ref>. Research suggests that at low doses, [[paroxetine]] induces an anxiogenic-like response. <ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Sánchez | first1 = C. | last2 = Meier, | first2 = E. | year = 1997 | title= Behavioral profiles of SSRIs in animal models of depression, anxiety and aggression. | journal = Psychopharmacology | volume = 129 | issue = 3 | pages = 197–205 | doi = 10.1007/s002130050181 }} </ref>

===Benzodiazepines===

Benzodiazepines are a class of depressant drugs used to treat anxiety disorders by acting as GABA receptor agonists and affecting the levels of GABA within the CNS.

However, studies suggest that benzodiazepines may be anxiogenic in the long term.<ref>Galanter, Marc (1 July 2008). The American Psychiatric Publishing Textbook of Substance Abuse Treatment (American Psychiatric Press Textbook of Substance Abuse Treatment) (4 ed.). American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc. p. 197. {{ISBN|978-1-58562-276-4}}.</ref> Different benzodiazepines have different effects, such as β-CCM <ref name="deCarvalho1983">{{cite journal | last1 = de Carvalho, | first1 = L. P., | last2 = Grecksch, | first2 = G., | last3 = Chapouthier, | first3 = G., | last4 = Rossier, | first4 = J. | year = 1983 | title = Anxiogenic and non-anxiogenic benzodiazepine antagonists | journal = Nature | volume = 301 | issue = 5895 | pages = 64–66 | doi = 10.1038/301064a0 }}</ref> which has been linked to anxiogenic effects, unlike Ro 15-17888.<ref name="deCarvalho1983"></ref>


==See also==
==See also==

Revision as of 22:08, 23 March 2024

An anxiogenic or panicogenic substance is one that causes anxiety. This effect is in contrast to anxiolytic agents, which inhibits anxiety. Together these categories of psychoactive compounds may be referred to as anxiotropic compounds.

Experimental Studies

Anxiogenic effects can be measured by, for example, the hole-board test in rats and mice.[1] A number of agents are used to provoke anxiety (anxiogens) or panic (panicogens) in experimental models.

Mechanisms of Action

Anxiogenic substances typically work through affecting levels of neurotransmitters such as dopamine, epinephrine, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), norepinephrine (NE), and serotonin in the central nervous system (CNS). Some substances may alter functioning in the HPA axis, the neuroendocrine system that mediates responses to stress, where dysfunction has been linked to anxiety and panic disorders.[2]

Some substances, such as caffeine[3] and sodium lactate,[4] are largely reported to have anxiogenic effects only if they are consumed or taken by people with pre-existing anxiety or panic disorders.

Anxiogenic Substances

Psychoactive Substances

A psychoactive substance is one that alters the functioning of the nervous system to produce changes in cognition and behaviour and include commonly consumed substances such as caffeine and nicotine. Though not typically the desired response, several of these compounds may have anxiogenic side effects.

Caffeine

Caffeine, found in tea and coffee, acts as an adenosine receptor antagonist. Adenosine receptors are involved in mood regulation among other functions, with its antagonists linked to general anxiogenic effects, and specific receptors, such as the A2A receptor disorders [5]

However, research suggests that for caffeine to have notable anxiogenic effects when consumed, a person needs to have a pre-existing anxiety or panic disorder, and to consume a large amount of caffeine (5 cups or more).[3]

Nicotine

Nicotine, found in tobacco products, binds to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nACHRs), that may affect the function of pathways implicated with stress brains and anxiety.[6] Though nicotine is typically associated with a reduction in levels of anxiety, animal studies have found that at higher dosages, nicotine may have anxiogenic effects compared to its typical anxiolytic effects at lower dosages.[7]

Adrenergic Agents

Adrenergic agents affect the levels of norepinephrine and epinephrine in the nervous system. NE is a neurotransmitter associated with the regulation of various cognitive functions including stress responses, arousal, vigilance, and anxiety.

Yohimbine is an adrenergic agent that increases the levels of NE through inhibiting the absorption of NE by blocking the receptors on noradrenergic neurons. Research suggests that it can lead to a mildly anxious state [8] or worsen panic, anxiety, and related symptoms in PTSD patients.[9]

Serotonergic Agents

Serotonergic agents affect the neurotransmission pathways that involve serotonin, a neurotransmitter associated with mood regulation. Serotonin agonists can bind to and activate serotonin receptors, increasing the levels of serotonin in the CNS. Research supports the resulting anxiogenic effects of agents such as LY-293,284 and mCPP [10] [11] in the CNS through this serotonin mechanism.

Antibiotics

Fluroquinolones (FQs) are a type of antibiotic that have been linked to increased levels of anxiety and panic attacks [12], psychotic symptoms [13], and depression [12] [13], with adverse neuropsychiatric reactions estimated to occur in 1-4.4% of patients, across a range of mild to more severe cases

The mechanism behind this action is unclear however, with some researchers suggesting that FQs may act as low-affinity GABA-A antagonists [14], and others positing that its interactions with N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors, which have been associated with fear, anxiety, and depression, may be responsible for the anxiogenic effects [15][16]

Sodium Lactate

Sodium lactate given intravenously has been proven to cause panic attacks in people with a panic disorder but not in people with no such history.[4]

Miscellaneous

Other substances that may have anxiogenic effects include:

The GABAA receptor negative allosteric modulator flumazenil can cause panic attacks in people with panic disorder.

Anxiolytic Substances

Anxiolytic substances have the opposite effect to anxiogenic substances in that they reduce levels of anxiety. Some of these are used in psychopharmacotherapy as antidepressants to treat a range of mental health conditions, including various types of anxiety disorders, panic disorders, and depression. Typical antidepressants prescribed in psychiatry today include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and benzodiazepines.

Though these substances are typically used to decrease anxiety through affecting levels of neurotransmitters, some may have anxiogenic effects.

SSRIs

SSRIs are a commonly prescribed type of antidepressants that are used to treat anxiety and depression in the long term by increasing levels of serotonin in the CNS through blocking the reabsorption of serotonin. However, SSRIs are ineffective in the short-term treatment of acute panic attacks or acute anxiety.

Clinical research suggests that SSRIs may have a biphasic response, with research suggesting that citalopram may have an immediate anxiogenic effects from one dosage but long-term anxiolytic effects after three dosages [17][18]. Research suggests that at low doses, paroxetine induces an anxiogenic-like response. [19]

Benzodiazepines

Benzodiazepines are a class of depressant drugs used to treat anxiety disorders by acting as GABA receptor agonists and affecting the levels of GABA within the CNS.

However, studies suggest that benzodiazepines may be anxiogenic in the long term.[20] Different benzodiazepines have different effects, such as β-CCM [21] which has been linked to anxiogenic effects, unlike Ro 15-17888.[21]

See also

References

  1. ^ Takeda H, Tsuji M, Matsumiya T (May 1998). "Changes in head-dipping behavior in the hole-board test reflect the anxiogenic and/or anxiolytic state in mice". European Journal of Pharmacology. 350 (1): 21–9. doi:10.1016/S0014-2999(98)00223-4. PMID 9683010.
  2. ^ Juruena, M. F.; Eror, F.; Cleare, A. J. (2020). "The Role of Early Life Stress in HPA Axis and Anxiety". Anxiety Disorders. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. pp. 141–153.
  3. ^ a b Sztainberg Y, Chen A (2012). "Neuropeptide Regulation of Stress-Induced Behavior: Insights from the CRF/Urocortin Family". Handbook of Neuroendocrinology. Academic Press. pp. 355–375. ISBN 9780123750976.
  4. ^ a b Eric Hollander; Daphne Simeon (2003). Concise Guide to Anxiety Disorders. American Psychiatric Pub. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-58562-080-7. Retrieved 13 May 2012.
  5. ^ Calker, D.; Biber, K.; Domschke, K.; Serchov, T. (2019). "The role of adenosine receptors in mood and anxiety disorders". Journal of Neurochemistry. 151 (1): 11–27. doi:10.1111/jnc.14841.
  6. ^ Picciotto, M. R.; Brunzell, D. H.; Caldarone, B. J. (2002). "Effect of nicotine and nicotinic receptors on anxiety and depression". Neuroreport. 13 (9): 1097–1106. doi:10.1097/00001756-200207020-00006.
  7. ^ Fite, S. E.; Kenny, P. J.; Ouagazzal, A.-M. (1998). "Bimodal modulation by nicotine of anxiety in the social interaction test: Role of the dorsal hippocampus". Behavioural Neuroscience. 112 (6): 1423–1429. doi:10.1037/0735-7044.112.6.1423.
  8. ^ FIND THIS
  9. ^ Southwick, S. M. (1993). "Abnormal Noradrenergic Function in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder". Archives of General Psychiatry. 50 (4): 266. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1993.01820160036003.
  10. ^ Abrams, J. K.; Johnson, P. L.; Hay-Schmidt, A.; Mikkelsen, J. D.; Shekhar, A.; Lowry, C. A. (2005). "Serotonergic systems associated with arousal and vigilance behaviors following administration of anxiogenic drugs". Neuroscience. 133 (4): 983–997. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.03.025.
  11. ^ Kennett, G. A.; Whitton, P.; Shah, K.; Curzon, G. (1989). "Anxiogenic-like effects of mCPP and TFMPP in animal models are opposed by 5-HT1C receptor antagonists". European Journal of Pharmacology. 164 (3): 445–454. doi:10.1016/0014-2999(89)90252-5.
  12. ^ a b Kaur, K.; Fayad, R.; Saxena, A.; Frizzell, N.; Chanda, A.; Das, S.; Chatterjee, S.; Hegde, S.; Baliga, M. S.; Ponemone, V.; Rorro, M.; Greene, J.; Elraheb, Y.; Redd, A. J.; Bian, J.; Restaino, J.; Norris, L. B.; Qureshi, Z. P.; Love, B. L.; Brookstaver, B.; Georgantopoulos, P.; Sartor, O.; Raisch, D. W.; Rao, G.; Lu, K.; Ray, P.; Hrusheshky, W.; Schulz, R.; Ablin, R.; Noxon, V.; Bennett, C. L. (2016). "Fluoroquinolone-related neuropsychiatric and mitochondrial toxicity: a collaborative investigation by scientists and members of a social network". J Community Support Oncol. 14 (2): 54–65. doi:10.12788/jcso.0167. PMID 26955658.
  13. ^ a b Piotr, Wierzbiński; Hubska, J.; Henzler, M.; Kucharski, B.; Bies, R. R.; Marek, Krzystanek (2023). "Depressive and Other Adverse CNS Effects of Fluoroquinolones". Pharmaceuticals,. 16 (8): 1105–1105. doi:10.3390/ph16081105.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  14. ^ Tomé, A. M.; Filipe, A. (2011). "Quinolones". Drug Safety. 34 (6): 465–488. doi:10.2165/11587280-000000000-00000.
  15. ^ Barkus, Christopher; McHugh, Stephen B.; Sprengel, Rolf; Seeburg, Peter H.; Rawlins, J. Nicholas P.; Bannerman, David M. (2010). "Hippocampal NMDA receptors and anxiety: At the interface between cognition and emotion". European Journal of Pharmacology. 626 (1): 49–56. doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2009.10.014. ISSN 0014-2999.
  16. ^ Zareifopoulos, N.; Panayiotakopoulos, G. (2017). "Neuropsychiatric Effects of Antimicrobial Agents". Clinical Drug Investigation. 37 (5): 423–437. doi:10.1007/s40261-017-0498-z.
  17. ^ Koek,, W.; Mitchell,, N. C.,; Daws,, L. C. (2018). "Biphasic effects of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors on anxiety". Behavioural Pharmacology,. 29 (4): 365–369. doi:10.1097/fbp.0000000000000345.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  18. ^ Mombereau,, C.; Gur,, T. L.; Onksen, J.; Blendy, J. A. (2009). "Differential effects of acute and repeated citalopram in mouse models of anxiety and depression". The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology,. 13 (03): 321. doi:10.1017/s1461145709990630.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  19. ^ Sánchez, C.; Meier,, E. (1997). "Behavioral profiles of SSRIs in animal models of depression, anxiety and aggression". Psychopharmacology. 129 (3): 197–205. doi:10.1007/s002130050181.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  20. ^ Galanter, Marc (1 July 2008). The American Psychiatric Publishing Textbook of Substance Abuse Treatment (American Psychiatric Press Textbook of Substance Abuse Treatment) (4 ed.). American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc. p. 197. ISBN 978-1-58562-276-4.
  21. ^ a b de Carvalho,, L. P.,; Grecksch,, G.,; Chapouthier,, G.,; Rossier,, J. (1983). "Anxiogenic and non-anxiogenic benzodiazepine antagonists". Nature. 301 (5895): 64–66. doi:10.1038/301064a0.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

External links

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