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''Cordyceps unilateralis'' <small>(Tul.) [[Sacc.]] (1883)</small>
''Cordyceps unilateralis'' <small>(Tul.) [[Sacc.]] (1883)</small>
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'''''Ophiocordyceps unilateralis''''' is a [[parasitoid]]al [[fungus]] that infects [[ant]]s such as ''[[Camponotus leonardi]]'' and alters their behavior. The ant falls from the tree where it normally lives, climbs on the stem of a plant, clamps its [[mandible (insect mouthpart)|mandibles]] on a leaf and dies there, while the fungus consumes its tissues and grows outside it, releasing its [[spore]]s. The infected ants are popularly known as '''zombie ants'''.<ref name=Amore/> This is a prime example of a parasitoid that [[Behavior-altering parasites and parasitoids|alters the behavior]] of its host in order to ensure its own reproduction.<ref name=neup/> Possessed ants march to their death and the fungus lives inside the exoskeleton.<ref>{{cite web|last=Bhanoo|first=Sindya N.|title=Zombie-Ant Fungus Has Its Own Killer Fungus|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/08/science/zombie-ant-fungus-has-its-own-killer-fungus.html?_r=0|publisher=NY Times|accessdate=26 April 2013}}</ref>
'''''Ophiocordyceps unilateralis''''' is a [[parasitoid]]al [[fungus]] that infects [[ant]]s such as ''[[Camponotus leonardi]]'' and alters their behavior. The ant falls from the tree where it normally lives, climbs on the stem of a plant, clamps its [[mandible (insect mouthpart)|mandibles]] on a leaf and dies there, while the fungus consumes its tissues and grows outside it, releasing its [[spore]]s. The infected ants are popularly known as '''zombie ants'''.<ref name=Amore/> This is a prime example of a parasitoid that [[Behavior-altering parasites and parasitoids|alters the behavior]] of its host in order to ensure its own reproduction.<ref name=Sample/> Possessed ants march to their death and the fungus lives inside the exoskeleton.<ref>{{cite web|last=Bhanoo|first=Sindya N.|title=Zombie-Ant Fungus Has Its Own Killer Fungus|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/08/science/zombie-ant-fungus-has-its-own-killer-fungus.html?_r=0|publisher=NY Times|accessdate=26 April 2013}}</ref>


== Morphology ==
== Morphology ==
Line 22: Line 22:


== Life cycle ==
== Life cycle ==
Like other [[entomopathogenic fungus|fungi pathogenic to insects]] in the ''[[Ophiocordyceps]]'' genus, ''O. unilateralis'' targets a specific host species, the ''Camponotus leonardi'' ant. However the fungus may parasitize other closely related species of ants with lesser degrees of host manipulation and reproductive success.<ref name=neup/>
Like other [[entomopathogenic fungus|fungi pathogenic to insects]] in the ''[[Ophiocordyceps]]'' genus, ''O. unilateralis'' targets a specific host species, the ''Camponotus leonardi'' ant. However the fungus may parasitize other closely related species of ants with lesser degrees of host manipulation and reproductive success.<ref name=Sample/>


The fungus's spores enter the body of the insect likely through the cuticle by enzymatic activity, where they begin to consume the non-vital soft tissues. Yeast stages of the fungus spread in the ant's body and presumably produce compounds that affect the ant's brain and change its behaviour by currently unknown mechanisms. The insect climbs up the stem of a plant and uses its mandibles to secure itself to a leaf vein, with abnormal force, leaving [[dumbbell]]-shaped marks on it. A search through plant fossil databases revealed similar marks on a fossil leaf from the [[Messel Pit]] which is 48 million years old.<ref name=Zombie/><ref name=Hughes/>
The fungus's spores enter the body of the insect likely through the cuticle by enzymatic activity, where they begin to consume the non-vital soft tissues. Yeast stages of the fungus spread in the ant's body and presumably produce compounds that affect the ant's brain and change its behaviour by currently unknown mechanisms. The insect climbs up the stem of a plant and uses its mandibles to secure itself to a leaf vein, with abnormal force, leaving [[dumbbell]]-shaped marks on it. A search through plant fossil databases revealed similar marks on a fossil leaf from the [[Messel Pit]] which is 48 million years old.<ref name=Zombie/><ref name=Hughes/>


The fungus then kills the ant, and continues to grow as its hyphae invade more soft tissues and structurally fortify the ant's exoskeleton.<ref name=neup/> More mycelia then sprout out of the ant, and securely anchor it to the plant substrate while secreting antimicrobials to ward off competition.<ref name=neup/> When the fungus is ready to reproduce, its [[fruiting bodies]] grow from the ant's head and rupture, releasing the spores. This process takes 4 to 10 days.<ref name=neup/>
The fungus then kills the ant, and continues to grow as its hyphae invade more soft tissues and structurally fortify the ant's exoskeleton.<ref name=Sample/> More mycelia then sprout out of the ant, and securely anchor it to the plant substrate while secreting antimicrobials to ward off competition.<ref name=Sample/> When the fungus is ready to reproduce, its [[fruiting bodies]] grow from the ant's head and rupture, releasing the spores. This process takes 4 to 10 days.<ref name=Sample/>


The changes in the behavior of the infected ants are very specific, giving rise to the popular term "zombie ants", and tuned for the benefit of the fungus. The ants suffer from convulsions causing them to fall to the ground and preventing them from finding their way back to their canopy.<ref name=FuBrain/> The ants generally clamp to a leaf's vein about 25&nbsp;cm above the ground, on the northern side of the plant, in an environment with 94–95% humidity and temperatures between 20 and 30&nbsp;°C. Infections may lead to 20 to 30 dead ants per square metre.<ref>{{cite web|last=Attenborough|first=David|title=Cordyceps: attack of the killer fungi – Planet Earth Attenborough BBC wildlife|url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XuKjBIBBAL8|publisher=BBC Worldwide|accessdate=4/21/13}}</ref> "Each time, they are on leaves that are a particular height off the ground and they have bitten into the main vein [of a leaf] before dying".<ref name=GU/> When the dead ants are moved to other places and positions, further vegetative growth and sporulation either fails to occur or results in undersized and abnormal reproductive structures.<ref name=Andersen/>
The changes in the behavior of the infected ants are very specific, giving rise to the popular term "zombie ants", and tuned for the benefit of the fungus. The ants suffer from convulsions causing them to fall to the ground and preventing them from finding their way back to their canopy.<ref name=FuBrain/> The ants generally clamp to a leaf's vein about 25&nbsp;cm above the ground, on the northern side of the plant, in an environment with 94–95% humidity and temperatures between 20 and 30&nbsp;°C. Infections may lead to 20 to 30 dead ants per square metre.<ref>{{cite episode|last=Attenborough|first=David|title=Cordyceps: attack of the killer fungi | series = Planet Earth | | url = http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XuKjBIBBAL8 | publisher = [[BBC Worldwide]] | accessdate = 4/21/13 }}</ref> "Each time, they are on leaves that are a particular height off the ground and they have bitten into the main vein [of a leaf] before dying".<ref name=Sample/> When the dead ants are moved to other places and positions, further vegetative growth and sporulation either fails to occur or results in undersized and abnormal reproductive structures.<ref name=Andersen/>


== Geographic distribution ==
== Geographic distribution ==
Line 51: Line 51:


==Anti-zombie-fungus fungus==
==Anti-zombie-fungus fungus==
''O. unilateralis'' suffers from an unidentified fungal [[hyperparasite]], reported in the lay press as the "anti-zombie-fungus fungus", that results in only 6–7% of sporangia being viable, limiting the damage ''O. unilateralis'' inflicts on ant colonies.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://science.psu.edu/news-and-events/2012-news/Hughes4-2012 | publisher = Pennsylvania State University | title = The Zombie-Ant Fungus Is Under Attack, Research Reveals | date = 2012-05-02 | accessdate = 2013-03-04}}</ref><ref>[http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0036352]</ref>
''O. unilateralis'' suffers from an unidentified fungal [[hyperparasite]], reported in the lay press as the "anti-zombie-fungus fungus", that results in only 6–7% of sporangia being viable, limiting the damage ''O. unilateralis'' inflicts on ant colonies.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://science.psu.edu/news-and-events/2012-news/Hughes4-2012 | publisher = Pennsylvania State University | title = The Zombie-Ant Fungus Is Under Attack, Research Reveals | date = 2012-05-02 | accessdate = 2013-03-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url = http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0036352 | journal = [[PLOS ONE]] | volume = 7 | issue = 5 | page = e36352 | title = Disease Dynamics in a Specialized Parasite of Ant Societies | first1 = Sandra B. | last1 = Andersen | first2 = Matthew | last2 = Ferrari | first3 = Harry C. | last3 = Evans | first4 = Simon L. | last4 = Elliot | first5 = Jacobus J. | last5 = Boomsma | first6 = David P. | last6 = Hughes | date = May 02, 2012 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0036352 }}</ref>


==In popular culture==
==In popular culture==
A fictitious variant of the fungus is featured in the game ''[[The Last of Us]]''. The infection spreads to humanity and creates a zombie-like appearance/behavior, which causes the infected to become hostile and violent towards the non-infected.<ref>Hill, Kyle [http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/overthinking-it/2013/06/25/the-fungus-that-reduced-humanity-to-the-last-of-us/ "The Fungus that Reduced Humanity to The Last of Us"] Scientific American 06/25/13</ref>
A fictitious variant of the fungus is featured in the game ''[[The Last of Us]]''. The infection spreads to humanity and creates a zombie-like appearance/behavior, which causes the infected to become hostile and violent towards the non-infected.<ref>{{cite web | last1 = Hill | last2 = Kyle | url = http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/overthinking-it/2013/06/25/the-fungus-that-reduced-humanity-to-the-last-of-us/ | title = The Fungus that Reduced Humanity to The Last of Us | work = [[Scientific American]] | date = 06/25/13 }}</ref>


==References==
==References==
⚫
{{reflist|refs=
<references>


<ref name=neup>
<ref name=Sample>
⚫
{{cite news | first = Ian | last = Sample | url = http://www.theguardian.com/science/2010/aug/18/zombie-carpenter-ant-fungus | title = 'Zombie ants' controlled by parasitic fungus for 48m years | date = 18 August 2010 | department = News » Science » Microbiology | newspaper = [[The Guardian]] | accessdate = 2010-08-22 }}
Ian Sample (2010), [http://www.sw-gm.com/index.php?t=5987 "Parasitic mind control fungus exists for 48m years"]. 18 August 2010, at Parascientifica.com
</ref>
</ref>


<ref name=ponto>
<ref name=ponto>
M. B. Pontoppidan, W. Himaman, N. L. Hywel-Jones, J. J. Boomsma, D. P. Hughes (2009), "Graveyards on the move: The spatio-temporal distribution of dead ''Ophiocordyceps''-infected ants" ''PLoS ONE'', volume 4, issue 3, pages e4835. {{doi|10.1371/journal.pone.0004835}} PMID 19279680.
{{cite journal | first1 = Maj-Britt | last1 = Pontoppidan | first2 = Winanda | last2 = Himaman | first3 = Nigel L. | last3 = Hywel-Jones | first4 = Jacobus J. | last4 = Boomsma | first5 = David P. | last5 = Hughes | date = 12 March 2009 | title = Graveyards on the move: The spatio-temporal distribution of dead ''Ophiocordyceps''-infected ants | journal = [[PLOS ONE]] | volume = 4 | issue = 3 | pages = e4835 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0004835 | pmid = 19279680 }}
</ref>
</ref>


<ref name=sung>
<ref name=sung>
G. H. Sung, N. L. Hywel-Jones, J. M. Sung, J. J. Luangsa-Ard, B. Shrestha, and others (2007). "Phylogenetic classification of ''Cordyceps'' and the clavicipitaceous fungi". Studies in Mycology, volume 57, pages 5–59, ,{{doi|10.3114/sim.2007.57.01}} PMID 18490993
{{cite journal | first1 = Gi-Ho | last1 = Sung | first2 = Nigel L. | last2 = Hywel-Jones | first3 = Jae-Mo | last3 = Sung | first4 = J. Jennifer | last4 = Luangsa-Ard | first5 = Bhushan | last5 = Shrestha | first6 = Joseph W. | last6 = Spatafora | year = 2007 | title = Phylogenetic classification of ''Cordyceps'' and the clavicipitaceous fungi | journal = [[Studies in Mycology]] | volume = 57 | issue = 1 | pages = 5–59 | doi = 10.3114/sim.2007.57.01 | pmid = 18490993 }}
</ref>
</ref>


<ref name=Zombie>
<ref name=Zombie>
(2010) [http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/08/100818105730.htm "Fossil Reveals 48-Million-Year History of Zombie Ants"] Science Daily (online), 18 August 2010. Accessed on 2010-09-12
{{cite news | year = 2010 | url = http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/08/100818105730.htm | title = Fossil Reveals 48-Million-Year History of Zombie Ants | publisher = [[Science Daily]] | date = 18 August 2010 | accessdate = 2010-09-12 }}
</ref>
</ref>


<ref name=MBank>
<ref name=MBank>
[http://www.mycobank.org/MycoTaxo.aspx?Link=T&Rec=281145 "''Ophiocordyceps unilateralis'' (Tul.) Petch 1931"] at MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Accessed on 2011-07-19
{{cite web | url = http://www.mycobank.org/MycoTaxo.aspx?Link=T&Rec=281145 | title = Ophiocordyceps unilateralis | work = [[MycoBank]] | publisher = [[International Mycological Association]] | accessdate = 2011-07-19 }}
</ref>
</ref>


<ref name=Hughes>
<ref name=Hughes>
David P. Hughes, Torsten Wappler, Conrad C. Labandeira (2010), "Ancient death-grip leaf scars reveal ant fungal parasitism". Biology Letters of The Royal Society, volume 7, issue 1, pages 67–70. {{doi|10.1098/rsbl.2010.0521}} PMID 20719770
{{cite journal | first1 = David P. | last1 = Hughes | first2 = Torsten | last2 = Wappler | first3 = Conrad C. | last3 = Labandeira | origyear = 18 August 2010 | date = 23 February 2011 | title = Ancient death-grip leaf scars reveal ant fungal parasitism | journal = [[Biology Letters]] | publisher = [[Royal Society]] | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = 67–70 | doi = 10.1098/rsbl.2010.0521 | pmid = 20719770 }}
</ref>

<ref name=GU>
⚫
Ian Sample (2010), [//www.guardian.co.uk/science/2010/aug/18/zombie-carpenter-ant-fungus "'Zombie ants' controlled by parasitic fungus for 48m years"]. The Guardian (online), 18 August 2010. Accessed on 2010-08-22
</ref>
</ref>


<ref name=Andersen>
<ref name=Andersen>
S. B. Andersen, S. Gerritsma, K. M. Yusah, D. Mayntz, N. L. Hywel-Jones, J. Billen, J. J. Boomsma, D. P. Hughes (2009), "The life of a dead ant: The expression of an adaptive extended phenotype" ''The American Naturalist'', volume 174, issue 3, pages 424–433 ,{{doi|10.1086/603640}} PMID 19627240
{{cite journal | first1 = Sandra B. | last1 = Andersen | first2 = Sylvia | last2 = Gerritsma | first3 = Kalsum M. | last3 = Yusah | first4 = David | last4 = Mayntz | first5 = Nigel L. | last5 = Hywel‐Jones | first6 = Johan | last6 = Billen | first7 = Jacobus J. | last7 = Boomsma | first8 = David P. | last8 = Hughes | date = September 2009 | title = The life of a dead ant: The expression of an adaptive extended phenotype | journal = [[The American Naturalist]] | volume = 174 | issue = 3 | pages = 424–433 | doi = 10.1086/603640 | pmid = 19627240 | jstor = 10.1086/603640 }}
</ref>
</ref>


<ref name=Harmon>
<ref name=Harmon>
Katherine Harmon (2009) [http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=fungus-makes-zombie-ants "Fungus makes zombie ants do all the work"]. Scientific American (online), 31 July 2009. Accessed on 2010-08-22.
{{cite web | first = Katherine | last = Harmon | date = 31 July 2009 | url = http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=fungus-makes-zombie-ants | title = Fungus makes zombie ants do all the work | work = [[Scientific American]] | accessdate = 2010-08-22 }}
</ref>
</ref>


<ref name=Amore>
<ref name=Amore>
Christine Dell'Amore (2012), [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2012/05/120504-zombie-ant-fungus-science-environment-rainforest/ "'Zombie Ant' fungus under attack"]. National Geographic (online). Accessed on 2012-11-28.
{{cite news | first = Christine | last = Dell'Amore | date = 4 May 2012 | url = http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2012/05/120504-zombie-ant-fungus-science-environment-rainforest/ | title = 'Zombie Ant' fungus under attack | journal = [[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic (online)]] | accessdate = 2012-11-28 }}
</ref>
</ref>


<ref name=Xiao>
<ref name=Xiao>
J. H. Xiao, J. J. Zhong (2007), "Secondary metabolites from ''Cordyceps'' species and their antitumor activity studies". Recent Patents on Biotechnology, volume 1, issue 2, pages 123–137. {{doi|10.2174/187220807780809454}} PMID 19075836
{{cite journal | first1 = Jian-Hui | last = Xiao | first2 = Jian-Jiang | last2 = Zhong | date = 2007 | title = Secondary metabolites from Cordyceps species and their antitumor activity studies | journal = [[Recent Patents on Biotechnology]] | volume = 1 | issue = 2 | pages = 123–137 | doi = 10.2174/187220807780809454 | pmid = 19075836 }}
</ref>
</ref>


<ref name=Wongsa>
<ref name=Wongsa>
P. Wongsa, K. Tasanatai, P. Watts, N. Hywel-Jones (2005) "Isolation and in vitro cultivation of the insect pathogenic fungus ''Cordyceps unilateralis''" ''Mycological Research'', volume 109, issue Pt 8, pages 936–940. {{doi|10.1017/S0953756205003321}} PMID 16175796
{{cite journal | first1 = Patcharaporn | last1 = Wongsa | first2 = Kanoksri | last2 = Tasanatai | first3 = Patricia | last3 = Watts | first4 = Nigel | last4 = Hywel-Jones | date = August 2005 | title = Isolation and in ''vitro'' cultivation of the insect pathogenic fungus ''Cordyceps unilateralis'' | journal = [[Mycological Research]] | volume = 109 | issue = 8 | pages = 936–940 | doi = 10.1017/S0953756205003321 | pmid = 16175796 }}
</ref>
</ref>


<ref name=Unagul>
<ref name=Unagul>
P. Unagul, P. Wongsa, P. Kittakoop, S. Intamas, P. Srikitikulchai, and M. Tanticharoen (2005), "Production of red pigments by the insect pathogenic fungus ''Cordyceps unilateralis''". Journal of Industrial Microbiology & Biotechnology, volume 32, issue 4, pages 135–140. {{doi|10.1007/s10295-005-0213-6}} PMID 15891934
{{cite journal | first1 = Panida | last1 = Unagul | first2 = Patcharaporn | last2 = Wongsa | first3 = Prasat | last3 = Kittakoop | first4 = Sutichai | last4 = Intamas | first5 = Prasert | last5 = Srikitikulchai | first6 = Morakot | last6 = Tanticharoen | date = April 2005 | title = Production of red pigments by the insect pathogenic fungus ''Cordyceps unilateralis'' BCC 1869 | journal = [[Journal of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology]] | volume = 32 | issue = 4 | pages = 135–140 | doi = 10.1007/s10295-005-0213-6 | pmid = 15891934 }}
</ref>
</ref>


Line 118: Line 114:
(2011), [http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/05/110509065536.htm "Zombie Ants have fungus on the brain, new research reveals"]. Science Daily. Accessed on 2012-11-27.
(2011), [http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/05/110509065536.htm "Zombie Ants have fungus on the brain, new research reveals"]. Science Daily. Accessed on 2012-11-27.
</ref>
</ref>
}}

⚫
{{reflist}}


==External links==
==External links==

Revision as of 16:45, 14 January 2014

Ophiocordyceps unilateralis
Dead ants infected with Ophiocordyceps unilateralis
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Fungi
Division:
Ascomycota
Class:
Sordariomycetes
Order:
Hypocreales
Family:
Ophiocordycipitaceae
Genus:
Ophiocordyceps
Species:
O. unilateralis
Binomial name
Ophiocordyceps unilateralis
(Tul.) Petch (1931)
Synonyms[1]

Torrubia unilateralis Tul. (1865)
Cordyceps unilateralis (Tul.) Sacc. (1883)

Ophiocordyceps unilateralis is a parasitoidal fungus that infects ants such as Camponotus leonardi and alters their behavior. The ant falls from the tree where it normally lives, climbs on the stem of a plant, clamps its mandibles on a leaf and dies there, while the fungus consumes its tissues and grows outside it, releasing its spores. The infected ants are popularly known as zombie ants.[2] This is a prime example of a parasitoid that alters the behavior of its host in order to ensure its own reproduction.[3] Possessed ants march to their death and the fungus lives inside the exoskeleton.[4]

Morphology

The species can be identified at the end of its lifecycle by its reproductive structure, consisting of a wiry yet pliant darkly pigmented stroma stalk extending from the back of the deceased ant's head. The stalk has perithecia just below its tip.[5][6] The fungus infects ants, most known as the carpenter ants, in which the fungus creates a single stalk arising from the dorsal neck region on which the sexual structures are borne horizontally, which creates the spores. Once infected with the fungus the ant will climb down from its normal habitat and bite down on the underside of a leaf. This is known as "the death grip" occurring in very precise locations.[7]

Life cycle

Like other fungi pathogenic to insects in the Ophiocordyceps genus, O. unilateralis targets a specific host species, the Camponotus leonardi ant. However the fungus may parasitize other closely related species of ants with lesser degrees of host manipulation and reproductive success.[3]

The fungus's spores enter the body of the insect likely through the cuticle by enzymatic activity, where they begin to consume the non-vital soft tissues. Yeast stages of the fungus spread in the ant's body and presumably produce compounds that affect the ant's brain and change its behaviour by currently unknown mechanisms. The insect climbs up the stem of a plant and uses its mandibles to secure itself to a leaf vein, with abnormal force, leaving dumbbell-shaped marks on it. A search through plant fossil databases revealed similar marks on a fossil leaf from the Messel Pit which is 48 million years old.[8][9]

The fungus then kills the ant, and continues to grow as its hyphae invade more soft tissues and structurally fortify the ant's exoskeleton.[3] More mycelia then sprout out of the ant, and securely anchor it to the plant substrate while secreting antimicrobials to ward off competition.[3] When the fungus is ready to reproduce, its fruiting bodies grow from the ant's head and rupture, releasing the spores. This process takes 4 to 10 days.[3]

The changes in the behavior of the infected ants are very specific, giving rise to the popular term "zombie ants", and tuned for the benefit of the fungus. The ants suffer from convulsions causing them to fall to the ground and preventing them from finding their way back to their canopy.[10] The ants generally clamp to a leaf's vein about 25 cm above the ground, on the northern side of the plant, in an environment with 94–95% humidity and temperatures between 20 and 30 °C. Infections may lead to 20 to 30 dead ants per square metre.[11] "Each time, they are on leaves that are a particular height off the ground and they have bitten into the main vein [of a leaf] before dying".[3] When the dead ants are moved to other places and positions, further vegetative growth and sporulation either fails to occur or results in undersized and abnormal reproductive structures.[12]

Geographic distribution

The fungus occurs in tropical forests throughout the world, including those in Africa, Brazil, Thailand and Palau.[13]

Host impact

O. unilateralis has been known to destroy entire ant colonies. In response, ants have evolved the ability to sense that a member of the colony is infected; healthy ants will carry the dying one far away from the colony in order to avoid fungal spore exposure.[5][6] Throughout the life cycle, there are unique challenges that must be met by equally unique metabolic activities. The fungal pathogen must attach securely to the arthropod exoskeleton and penetrate it—avoiding or suppressing host defenses—then, control the behavior of the host before killing it; and finally, it must protect the carcass from microbial and scavenger attack.[7]

Medicinal potential

The Ophiocordyceps fungus contains various known and untapped bioactive metabolites, and is being investigated as a new source of natural drugs with immunomodulatory, antitumor, hypoglycemic and hypocholesterolemic functions.[14]

Six bioactive naphthoquinone derivatives have been isolated from O. unilateralis, namely

There has also been research into the use of red naphthoquinone pigments made by O. unilateralis as a dye for food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical manufacturing processes.[17]

Anti-zombie-fungus fungus

O. unilateralis suffers from an unidentified fungal hyperparasite, reported in the lay press as the "anti-zombie-fungus fungus", that results in only 6–7% of sporangia being viable, limiting the damage O. unilateralis inflicts on ant colonies.[18][19]

In popular culture

A fictitious variant of the fungus is featured in the game The Last of Us. The infection spreads to humanity and creates a zombie-like appearance/behavior, which causes the infected to become hostile and violent towards the non-infected.[20]

References

  1. ^ "Ophiocordyceps unilateralis". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Retrieved 2011-07-19.
  2. ^ Dell'Amore, Christine (4 May 2012). "'Zombie Ant' fungus under attack". National Geographic (online). Retrieved 2012-11-28.
  3. ^ a b c d e f Sample, Ian (18 August 2010). "'Zombie ants' controlled by parasitic fungus for 48m years". News » Science » Microbiology. The Guardian. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
  4. ^ Bhanoo, Sindya N. "Zombie-Ant Fungus Has Its Own Killer Fungus". NY Times. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
  5. ^ a b Pontoppidan, Maj-Britt; Himaman, Winanda; Hywel-Jones, Nigel L.; Boomsma, Jacobus J.; Hughes, David P. (12 March 2009). "Graveyards on the move: The spatio-temporal distribution of dead Ophiocordyceps-infected ants". PLOS ONE. 4 (3): e4835. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0004835. PMID 19279680.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  6. ^ a b Sung, Gi-Ho; Hywel-Jones, Nigel L.; Sung, Jae-Mo; Luangsa-Ard, J. Jennifer; Shrestha, Bhushan; Spatafora, Joseph W. (2007). "Phylogenetic classification of Cordyceps and the clavicipitaceous fungi". Studies in Mycology. 57 (1): 5–59. doi:10.3114/sim.2007.57.01. PMID 18490993.
  7. ^ a b Evans, Harry; Elliot, Simon; Hughes, David (September–October 2011). "Ophiocordyceps unilateralis – A keystone species for unraveling ecosystem functioning and biodiversity of fungi in tropical forests?". Communicative Integrative Biology. 4 (5): 598–602. doi:10.4161/cib.4.5.16721. PMC 3204140. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |doi_brokendate= ignored (|doi-broken-date= suggested) (help)
  8. ^ "Fossil Reveals 48-Million-Year History of Zombie Ants". Science Daily. 18 August 2010. Retrieved 2010-09-12.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  9. ^ Hughes, David P.; Wappler, Torsten; Labandeira, Conrad C. (23 February 2011) [18 August 2010]. "Ancient death-grip leaf scars reveal ant fungal parasitism". Biology Letters. 7 (1). Royal Society: 67–70. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2010.0521. PMID 20719770.
  10. ^ (2011), "Zombie Ants have fungus on the brain, new research reveals". Science Daily. Accessed on 2012-11-27.
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External links

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