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====Reporting bias & social desirability bias====
====Reporting bias & social desirability bias====
{{main|Reporting bias|Social desirability bias}}
{{main|Reporting bias|Social desirability bias}}
In [[epidemiology]], reporting bias is defined as "selective revealing or suppression of information" by subjects (for example about past medical history, smoking, sexual experiences).<ref name="Porta2008">{{cite book|editor=Porta, Miquel |title=A Dictionary of Epidemiology|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=s7R-MLMyEgwC&pg=PT275|accessdate=27 March 2013|date=5 June 2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-157844-1|page=275}}</ref>

By extension, in [[empirical research]] in general, the term reporting bias may be used to refer to a tendency to under-report unexpected or undesirable experimental results, attributing the results to [[sampling (statistics)|sampling]] or measurement error, while being more trusting of expected or desirable results, though these may be subject to the same sources of error. In this context, reporting bias can eventually lead to a status quo where multiple investigators discover and discard the same results, and later experimenters justify their own reporting bias by observing that previous experimenters reported different results. Thus, each incident of reporting bias can make future incidents more likely.
<ref>[http://www.cochrane.org/resources/handbook/ Green S, Higgins S, editors: Glossary. Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions 4.2.5.]</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = McGauran | first1 = N | last2 = Wieseler | first2 = B | last3 = Kreis | first3 = J | last4 = Schüler | first4 = YB | last5 = Kölsch | first5 = H | last6 = Kaiser | first6 = T | year = 2010 | title = Reporting bias in medical research - a narrative review | url = http://www.trialsjournal.com/content/pdf/1745-6215-11-37.pdf | format = PDF | journal = Trials | volume = 11 | issue = | page = 37 | doi = 10.1186/1745-6215-11-37 }}</ref> Sociologist Christopher B. Doob refers to this practice as selective reporting in explaining the Power of the Press and defines it as biased coverage of news issues that promotes corporate interests and downplays, denigrates, or ignores issues and groups challenging these issues.<ref>Doob, C. B. (2013). Social inequality and social stratification in US society. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.</ref>

Social desirability bias is a bias within [[Social research|social science research]] where [[survey methodology|survey]] respondents can tend to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed positively by others.<ref name="SDRdef">{{Citation | title = Social Desirability Bias | publisher = psychologyconcepts.com url = http://www.psychologyconcepts.com/social-desirability-bias/ | accessdate =September 1, 2015}}</ref> It can take the form of over-reporting laudable behavior, or under-reporting undesirable behavior. This bias interferes with the interpretation of average tendencies as well as individual differences. The inclination represents a major issue with [[Self-report study|self-report]] questionnaires; of special concern are self-reports of abilities, [[Personality|personalities]], [[Human sexual activity|sexual behavior]], and [[Recreational drug use|drug use]].<ref name="SDRdef" />
Social desirability bias is a bias within [[Social research|social science research]] where [[survey methodology|survey]] respondents can tend to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed positively by others.<ref name="SDRdef">{{Citation | title = Social Desirability Bias | publisher = psychologyconcepts.com url = http://www.psychologyconcepts.com/social-desirability-bias/ | accessdate =September 1, 2015}}</ref> It can take the form of over-reporting laudable behavior, or under-reporting undesirable behavior. This bias interferes with the interpretation of average tendencies as well as individual differences. The inclination represents a major issue with [[Self-report study|self-report]] questionnaires; of special concern are self-reports of abilities, [[Personality|personalities]], [[Human sexual activity|sexual behavior]], and [[Recreational drug use|drug use]].<ref name="SDRdef" />


Revision as of 23:15, 22 September 2015

For other uses, see Bias (disambiguation).

Bias is an inclination of temperament or outlook to present or hold a partial perspective, often accompanied by a refusal to consider the possible merits of alternative points of view. People may be biased toward or against an individual, a race, a religion, a social class, a political party, or a species.[1] Biased means one-sided, lacking a neutral viewpoint, or not having an open mind. Bias can come in many forms and is often considered to be synonymous with prejudice or bigotry.[2]

Types of bias

Cognitive biases

Main articles: Cognitive bias and List of cognitive biases

A cognitive bias is a repeating or basic misstep in thinking, assessing, recollecting, or other cognitive processes.[3] That is, a pattern of deviation from standards in judgment, whereby inferences may be created unreasonably.[4] People create their own "subjective social reality" from their own perceptions,[5] their view of the world may dictate their behaviour.[6] Thus, cognitive biases may sometimes lead to perceptual distortion, inaccurate judgment, illogical interpretation, or what is broadly called irrationality.[7][8][9] However some cognitive biases are taken to be adaptive, and thus may lead to success in the appropriate situation.[10] Furthermore, cognitive biases may allow speedier choices when speed is more valuable than precision.[11] Other cognitive biases are a "by-product" of human processing limitations,[12] coming about because of an absence of appropriate mental mechanisms, or just from human limitations in information processing.[13]

Conflicts of interest

Main article: Conflict of interest

A conflict of interest (COI) is when a person or association has intersecting interests (financial, personal, etcetera) which could potentially corrupt. The potential conflict is autonomous of actual improper actions, it can be found and intentionally defused before corruption, or the appearance of corruption, happens. "A conflict of interest is a set of circumstances that creates a risk that professional judgement or actions regarding a primary interest will be unduly influenced by a secondary interest."[14] It exists if the circumstances are sensibly accepted to present a hazard that choices made may be unduly impacted by auxiliary interests.[15]

Stastical biases

Main article: Bias (statistics)

A stastical bias is a method of calculating a statistic which produces a consistent error.

Contextual biases

Academic bias

Main article: Academic bias

Academic bias is the bias or perceived bias of scholars allowing their beliefs to shape their research and the scientific community. Claims of bias are often linked to claims by conservatives of pervasive bias against political conservatives and religious Christians.[16] Some have argued that these claims are based upon anecdotal evidence which would not reliably indicate systematic bias,[17][18][19]and have suggested that this divide is due to self-selection of conservatives choosing not to pursue academic careers.[17][20] There is some evidence that perception of classroom bias may be rooted in issues of sexuality, race, class and sex as much or more than in religion.[21]

Cultural bias

Main article: Cultural bias

Cultural bias is the phenomenon of interpreting and judging phenomena by standards inherent to one's own culture. Numerous such biases exist, concerning cultural norms for color, location of body parts, mate selection, concepts of justice, linguistic and logical validity, acceptability of evidence, and taboos. Ordinary people may tend to imagine other people as basically the same, not significantly more or less valuable, probably attached emotionally to different groups and different land.

Educational bias

Main article: Bias in education

Bias in education refers to real or perceived bias in the educational system. The content of school textbooks is often the issue of debate, as their target audience is young people, and the term "whitewashing" is used to refer to selective removal of critical or damaging evidence or comment.[22][23][24] Religious bias in textbooks is observed in countries where religion plays a dominant role. There can be many forms of educational bias. Some overlooked aspects, occurring especially with the pedagogical circles of public and private schools—sources that are unrelated to fiduciary or mercantile impoverishment which may be unduly magnified—include teacher bias as well as a general bias against women who are going into STEM research.[25][26]

Experimenter bias

Main articles: Experimenter's bias and Funding bias

In science research, experimenter bias occurs when experimenter expectancies regarding study results bias the research outcome.[27] Examples of experimenter bias include conscious or unconscious influences on subject behavior including creation of demand characteristics that influence subjects, and altered or selective recording of experimental results themselves.[28]

Full text on net bias

Main articles: FUTON bias and No abstract available bias

Full text on net (or FUTON) bias is a tendency of scholars to cite academic journals with open access—that is, journals that make their full text available on the internet without charge—in their own writing as compared with toll access publications. Scholars can more easily discover and access articles that have their full text on the internet, which increases authors' likelihood of reading, quoting, and citing these articles, this may increase the impact factor of open access journals relative to journals without open access.[29][30][31][32][33][34]

The related bias, no abstract available bias (NAA bias) is scholars' tendency to cite journal articles that have an abstract available online more readily than articles that do not.[29][34]

Inductive bias

Main article: Inductive bias

Inductive bias occurs within the field of machine learning. In machine learning one seeks to develop algorithms that are able to learn to anticipate a particular output. To accomplish this, the learning algorithm is given training cases that show the expected connection. Then the learner is tested with new examples. Without further assumptions, this problem cannot be solved exactly as unknown situations may not be predictable.[35][36] The inductive bias of the learning algorithm is the set of assumptions that the learner uses to predict outputs given inputs that it has not encountered.[35] It may bias the learner towards the correct solution, the incorrect, or be correct some of the time. A classical example of an inductive bias is Occam's Razor, which assumes that the simplest consistent hypothesis is the best.

Media bias

Main article: Media bias

Media bias is the bias or perceived bias of journalists and news producers within the mass media in the selection of events, the stories that are reported, and how they are covered. The term generally implies a pervasive or widespread bias violating the standards of journalism, rather than the perspective of an individual journalist or article. There are varied forms of media bias, including agenda-setting, gatekeeping, sensationalism, and others.[37] The level of media bias in different nations is debated. There are also watchdog groups that report on media bias.

Practical limitations to media neutrality include the inability of journalists to report all available stories and facts, the requirement that selected facts be linked into a coherent narrative, government influence including overt and covert censorship,[38] the influence of the owners of the news source, concentration of media ownership, the selection of staff, the preferences of an intended audience, and pressure from advertisers.

Bias has been a feature of the mass media since its birth with the invention of the printing press. The expense of early printing equipment restricted media production to a limited number of people. Historians have found that publishers often served the interests of powerful social groups.[39]

Publication bias

Main article: Publication bias

Publication bias is a type of bias with regard to what academic research is likely to be published because of a tendency of researchers, and journal editors, to prefer some outcomes rather than others e.g. results showing a significant finding, leads to a problematic bias in the published literature.[40] This can propagate further as literature reviews of claims about support for a hypothesis will themselves be biased if the original literature is contaminated by publication bias.[41] Studies with significant results often do not appear to be superior to studies with a null result with respect to quality of design.[42] However, statistically significant results have been shown to be three times more likely to be published compared to papers with null results.[43]

Reporting bias & social desirability bias

Main articles: Reporting bias and Social desirability bias

In epidemiology, reporting bias is defined as "selective revealing or suppression of information" by subjects (for example about past medical history, smoking, sexual experiences).[44]

By extension, in empirical research in general, the term reporting bias may be used to refer to a tendency to under-report unexpected or undesirable experimental results, attributing the results to sampling or measurement error, while being more trusting of expected or desirable results, though these may be subject to the same sources of error. In this context, reporting bias can eventually lead to a status quo where multiple investigators discover and discard the same results, and later experimenters justify their own reporting bias by observing that previous experimenters reported different results. Thus, each incident of reporting bias can make future incidents more likely. [45][46] Sociologist Christopher B. Doob refers to this practice as selective reporting in explaining the Power of the Press and defines it as biased coverage of news issues that promotes corporate interests and downplays, denigrates, or ignores issues and groups challenging these issues.[47]

Social desirability bias is a bias within social science research where survey respondents can tend to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed positively by others.[48] It can take the form of over-reporting laudable behavior, or under-reporting undesirable behavior. This bias interferes with the interpretation of average tendencies as well as individual differences. The inclination represents a major issue with self-report questionnaires; of special concern are self-reports of abilities, personalities, sexual behavior, and drug use.[48]

Prejudices

Main articles: Bigotry and Prejudice

Bias and prejudice are usually considered to be closely related.[2] Prejudice is prejudgment, or forming an opinion before becoming aware of the relevant facts of a case. The word is often used to refer to preconceived, usually unfavorable, judgments toward people or a person because of gender, political opinion, social class, age, disability, religion, sexuality, race/ethnicity, language, nationality, or other personal characteristics. Prejudice can also refer to unfounded beliefs[49] and may include "any unreasonable attitude that is unusually resistant to rational influence".[50]

Classism

Main article: Class discrimination

Classism is discrimination on the basis of social class. It includes attitudes that benefit the upper class at the expense of the lower class, or vice versa.[51]

Racism

Main article: Racism

Racism consists of ideologies based on a desire to dominate or a belief in the inferiority of another race.[52][53] It may also hold that members of different races should be treated differently.[54][55][56]

Sexism

Main article: Sexism

Sexism is discrimination based on a person's sex or gender. Sexism can affect any gender, but it is particularly documented as affecting women and girls.[57] It has been linked to stereotypes and gender roles,[58][59] and may include the belief that one sex or gender is intrinsically superior to another.[60]

See also

References

  1. ^ Steinbock, Bonnie (1978). "Speciesism and the Idea of Equality". Philosophy (53): 247–256. doi:10.1017/S0031819100016582.
  2. ^ a b "bias ...; prejudice", The New Merriam–Webster Dictionary, ISBN 0877799008
  3. ^ Definition of Cognitive Bias, Chegg, retrieved 1 September 2015
  4. ^ Haselton, M. G., Nettle, D., & Andrews, P. W. (2005). The evolution of cognitive bias. In D. M. Buss (Ed.), The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology: Hoboken, NJ, US: John Wiley & Sons Inc. pp. 724–746.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. ^ Bless, H., Fiedler, K., & Strack, F. (2004). Social cognition: How individuals construct social reality. Hove and New York: Psychology Press. p. 2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ^ Bless, H., Fiedler, K., & Strack, F. (2004). Social cognition: How individuals construct social reality. Hove and New York: Psychology Press.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  7. ^ Kahneman, D.; Tversky, A. (1972). "Subjective probability: A judgment of representativeness". Cognitive Psychology. 3 (3): 430–454. doi:10.1016/0010-0285(72)90016-3.
  8. ^ Baron, J. (2007). Thinking and Deciding (4th ed.). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
  9. ^ Ariely, D. (2008). Predictably Irrational: The Hidden Forces That Shape Our Decisions. New York, NY: HarperCollins.
  10. ^ For instance: Gigerenzer, G. & Goldstein, D. G. (1996). "Reasoning the fast and frugal way: Models of bounded rationality". Psychological Review. 103 (4): 650–669. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.103.4.650. PMID 8888650.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  11. ^ Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1974). "Judgement under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases". Sciences. 185 (4157): 1124–1131. doi:10.1126/science.185.4157.1124. PMID 17835457.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  12. ^ Haselton, M. G., Nettle, D., & Andrews, P. W. (2005). The evolution of cognitive bias. In D. M. Buss (Ed.), The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology: Hoboken, NJ, US: John Wiley & Sons Inc. pp. 724–746.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  13. ^ Bless, H., Fiedler, K., & Strack, F. (2004). Social cognition: How individuals construct social reality. Hove and New York: Psychology Press.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. ^ Lo, Bernard; Field, Marilyn J. (2009). Conflict of Interest in Medical Research, Education, and Practice. Washington DC: National Academies Press. ISBN 978-0-309-13188-9.
  15. ^ Cain, D.M. and Detsky, A.S. Everyone's a Little Bit Biased (Even Physicians) JAMA 2008;299(24):2893–289.
  16. ^ Hibbing, John D (2014), "Differences in negativity bias underlie variations in political ideology", Behavior and Brain Sciences, 37: 297–350, doi:10.1017/S0140525X13001192, ISSN 1939-1323
  17. ^ a b Ames, Barry; Barker, David C; Bonneau, Chris W; Carman, Christopher J (2005), "Hide the Republicans, the Christians, and the Women: A Response to "Politics and Professional Advancement Among College Faculty"", The Forum, 3 (2), doi:10.2202/1540-8884.1075, ISSN 1540-8884
  18. ^ Lee, John (November 2006), The "Faculty Bias" Studies: Science or Propaganda (PDF), American Federation of Teachers, retrieved 2014-01-24
  19. ^ Giroux, Henry A. (2006), "Academic Freedom Under Fire: The Case for Critical Pedagogy", College Literature, 33 (4), West Chester: West Chester University: 1–42, doi:10.1353/lit.2006.0051, ISSN 1542-4286
  20. ^ Gross, Neil (9 April 2013), Why Are Professors Liberal and Why Do Conservatives Care?, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-07448-4, retrieved 2014-01-24
  21. ^ Boysen, Guy A; Vogel, David L; Cope, Marissa A; Hubbard, Asale (2009), "Incidents Of Bias in College Classrooms: Instructor and Student Perceptions", Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 2 (4): 219–231, doi:10.1037/a0017538, ISSN 1938-8934
  22. ^ Sadker, David. "Seven Forms of Bias in Instructional Materials". sadker.org. Retrieved 3 September 2015.
  23. ^ Strauss, Valerie (12 September 2014). "Proposed Texas textbooks are inaccurate, biased and politicized, new report finds". washingtonpost.com. Washington Post. Retrieved 3 September 2015.
  24. ^ Czitrom, Daniel (22 March 2010). "Texas school board whitewashes history". cnn.com. CNN. Retrieved 3 September 2015.
  25. ^ http://www.americanmentalhealthfundation.org.
  26. ^ "Crisis Counseling with Children," Van Ornum and Murdock, 1990, NY: Crossroad/Continuum.
  27. ^ Sackett, D. L. (1979). "Bias in analytic research". Journal of Chronic Diseases. 32 (1–2): 51–63. doi:10.1016/0021-9681(79)90012-2. PMID 447779.
  28. ^ Barry H. Kantowitz; Henry L. Roediger, III; David G. Elmes (2009). Experimental Psychology. Cengage Learning. p. 371. ISBN 978-0-495-59533-5. Retrieved 7 September 2013.
  29. ^ a b Murali, N. S.; Murali, H. R.; Auethavekiat, P.; Erwin, P. J.; Mandrekar, J. N.; Manek, N. J.; Ghosh, A. K. (2004). "Impact of FUTON and NAA bias on visibility of research" (PDF). Mayo Clinic proceedings. Mayo Clinic. 79 (8): 1001–1006. doi:10.4065/79.8.1001. PMID 15301326.
  30. ^ Ghosh, A. K.; Murali, N. S. (2003). "Online access to nephrology journals: The FUTON bias". Nephrology, dialysis, transplantation : official publication of the European Dialysis and Transplant Association - European Renal Association. 18 (9): 1943, author reply 1943. doi:10.1093/ndt/gfg247. PMID 12937253.
  31. ^ Mueller, P. S.; Murali, N. S.; Cha, S. S.; Erwin, P. J.; Ghosh, A. K. (2006). "The effect of online status on the impact factors of general internal medicine journals". The Netherlands journal of medicine. 64 (2): 39–44. PMID 16517987.
  32. ^ Krieger, M. M.; Richter, R. R.; Austin, T. M. (2008). "An exploratory analysis of PubMed's free full-text limit on citation retrieval for clinical questions". Journal of the Medical Library Association : JMLA. 96 (4): 351–355. doi:10.3163/1536-5050.96.4.010. PMC 2568849. PMID 18974812.
  33. ^ Gilman, Isaac (2009). "Opening up the Evidence: Evidence-Based Practice and Open Access". Faculty Scholarship (PUL). Pacific University Libraries.
  34. ^ a b Wentz, R. (2002). "Visibility of research: FUTON bias". The Lancet. 360 (9341): 1256–1256. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(02)11264-5. PMID 12401287.
  35. ^ a b Mitchell, T. M. (1980), The need for biases in learning generalizations, CBM-TR 5-110, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA: Rutgers University
  36. ^ DesJardins, M.; Gordon, D. F. (1995), Evaluation and selection of biases in machine learning, Machine Learning Journal, vol. 5:1--17
  37. ^ Strategic Maneuvering and Media Bias in Political News Magazine Opinion Articles, Stefano Mario Rivolta, 7 June 2011
  38. ^ "10 Most Censored Countries", Committee to Protect Journalists, 2 May 2006
  39. ^ Ann Heinrichs, The Printing Press (Inventions That Shaped the World), p. 53, Franklin Watts, 2005, ISBN 0-531-16722-4, ISBN 978-0-531-16722-9
  40. ^ Song, F.; Parekh, S.; Hooper, L.; Loke, Y. K.; Ryder, J.; Sutton, A. J.; Hing, C.; Kwok, C. S.; Pang, C.; Harvey, I. (2010). "Dissemination and publication of research findings: An updated review of related biases". Health technology assessment (Winchester, England). 14 (8): iii, iix–xi, iix–193. doi:10.3310/hta14080. PMID 20181324.
  41. ^ H. Rothstein, A. J. Sutton and M. Borenstein. (2005). Publication bias in meta-analysis: prevention, assessment and adjustments. Wiley. Chichester, England ; Hoboken, NJ.
  42. ^ Easterbrook, P. J.; Berlin, J. A.; Gopalan, R.; Matthews, D. R. (1991). "Publication bias in clinical research". Lancet. 337 (8746): 867–872. doi:10.1016/0140-6736(91)90201-Y. PMID 1672966.
  43. ^ Dickersin, K.; Chan, S.; Chalmers, T. C.; et al. (1987). "Publication bias and clinical trials". Controlled Clinical Trials. 8 (4): 343–353. doi:10.1016/0197-2456(87)90155-3.
  44. ^ Porta, Miquel, ed. (5 June 2008). A Dictionary of Epidemiology. Oxford University Press. p. 275. ISBN 978-0-19-157844-1. Retrieved 27 March 2013.
  45. ^ Green S, Higgins S, editors: Glossary. Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions 4.2.5.
  46. ^ McGauran, N; Wieseler, B; Kreis, J; Schüler, YB; Kölsch, H; Kaiser, T (2010). "Reporting bias in medical research - a narrative review" (PDF). Trials. 11: 37. doi:10.1186/1745-6215-11-37.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  47. ^ Doob, C. B. (2013). Social inequality and social stratification in US society. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
  48. ^ a b Social Desirability Bias, psychologyconcepts.com url = http://www.psychologyconcepts.com/social-desirability-bias/ {{citation}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); External link in |publisher= (help); Missing pipe in: |publisher= (help)
  49. ^ William James wrote: "A great many people think they are thinking when they are merely rearranging their prejudices." Quotable Quotes – Courtesy of The Freeman Institute
  50. ^ Rosnow, Ralph L. (March 1972). "Poultry and Prejudice". Psychologist Today. 5 (10): 53–6.
  51. ^ Kadi, Joanna (1996). Thinking Class. U.S.: South End Press. ISBN 0-89608-548-1.
  52. ^ "Oxford English Dictionary, Racism". Retrieved 24 Aug 2015. Prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed against someone of a different race based on the belief that one's own race is superior:
  53. ^ SCHMID, W. THOMAS (April 1996). "The Definition of Racism". Journal of Applied Philosophy. 13 (1): 31–40. doi:10.1111/j.1468-5930.1996.tb00147.x.
  54. ^ Racism Oxford Dictionaries
  55. ^ "Racism" in R. Schefer. 2008 Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity and Society. SAGE. p. 1113
  56. ^ Newman, D. M. (2012). Sociology : exploring the architecture of everyday life (9th ed.). Los Angeles: SAGE. p. 405. ISBN 978-1-4129-8729-5. racism: Belief that humans are subdivided into distinct groups that are different in their social behavior and innate capacities and that can be ranked as superior or inferior.
  57. ^ There is a clear and broad consensus among academic scholars in multiple fields that sexism refers primarily to discrimination against women, and primarily affects women. See, for example:
    • "Sexism". New Oxford American Dictionary (3 ed.). Oxford University Press. 2010. ISBN 9780199891535. Defines sexism as "prejudice, stereotyping, or discrimination, typically against women, on the basis of sex."
    • "Sexism". Encyclopedia Britannica, Online Academic Edition. 2015. Defines sexism as "prejudice or discrimination based on sex or gender, especially against women and girls." Notes that "sexism in a society is most commonly applied against women and girls. It functions to maintain patriarchy, or male domination, through ideological and material practices of individuals, collectives, and institutions that oppress women and girls on the basis of sex or gender."
    • Cudd, Ann E.; Jones, Leslie E. (2005). "Sexism". A Companion to Applied Ethics. London: Blackwell. Notes that "'Sexism' refers to a historically and globally pervasive form of oppression against women."
    • Masequesmay, Gina (2008). "Sexism". In O'Brien, Jodi (ed.). Encyclopedia of Gender and Society. SAGE. Notes that "sexism usually refers to prejudice or discrimination based on sex or gender, especially against women and girls." Also states that "sexism is an ideology or practices that maintain patriarchy or male domination."
    • Hornsby, Jennifer (2005). "Sexism". In Honderich, Ted (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Philosophy (2 ed.). Oxford. Defines sexism as "thought or practice which may permeate language and which assume's women's inferiority to men."
    • "Sexism". Collins Dictionary of Sociology. Harper Collins. 2006. Defines sexism as "any devaluation or denigration of women or men, but particularly women, which is embodied in institutions and social relationships."
    • "Sexism". Palgrave MacMillan Dictionary of Political Thought. Palgrave MacMillan. 2007. Notes that "either sex may be the object of sexist attitudes... however, it is commonly held that, in developed societies, women have been the usual victims."
    • "Sexism". The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Love, Courtship, and Sexuality through History, Volume 6: The Modern World. Greenwood. 2007. "Sexism is any act, attitude, or institutional configuration that systematically subordinates or devalues women. Built upon the belief that men and women are constitutionally different, sexism takes these differences as indications that men are inherently superior to women, which then is used to justify the nearly universal dominance of men in social and familial relationships, as well as politics, religion, language, law, and economics."
    • Foster, Carly Hayden (2011). "Sexism". In Kurlan, George Thomas (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Political Science. CQ Press. ISBN 9781608712434. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help) Notes that "both men and women can experience sexism, but sexism against women is more pervasive."
    • Johnson, Allan G. (2000). "Sexism". The Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology. Blackwell. Suggests that "the key test of whether something is sexist... lies in its consequences: if it supports male privilege, then it is by definition sexist. I specify 'male privilege' because in every known society where gender inequality exists, males are privileged over females."
    • Lorber, Judith (2011). Gender Inequality: Feminist Theories and Politics. Oxford University Press. p. 5. Notes that "although we speak of gender inequality, it is usually women who are disadvantaged relative to similarly situated men."
    • Wortman, Camille B.; Loftus, Elizabeth S.; Weaver, Charles A (1999). Psychology. McGraw-Hill. "As throughout history, today women are the primary victims of sexism, prejudice directed at one sex, even in the United States."
  58. ^ Matsumoto, 2001. P.197.
  59. ^ Nakdimen KA The American Journal of Psychiatry [1984, 141(4):499-503]
  60. ^ Doob, Christopher B. 2013. Social Inequality and Social Stratification in US Society. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.

External links

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