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The mechanisms are not always clear<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Young|first1=Darcy|last2=Rice|first2=James|last3=Martin|first3=Rachael|last4=Lindquist|first4=Erika|last5=Lipzen|first5=Anna|last6=Grigoriev|first6=Igor|last7=Hibbett|first7=David|title=Degradation of Bunker C Fuel Oil by White-Rot Fungi in Sawdust Cultures Suggests Potential Applications in Bioremediation|journal=PLoS ONE|date=25 June 2015|volume=10|issue=6|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0130381|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4482389/|accessdate=25 September 2017|issn=1932-6203|quote=The mechanisms by which P. strigosozonata may degrade complex oil compounds remain obscure, but degradation results of the 180-day cultures suggest that diverse white-rot fungi have promise for bioremediation of petroleum fuels.}}</ref>, and sometimes the mushroom is probably more a starter of subsequent microbial activity than effective in itself in the removal itself<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Stella|first1=Tatiana|last2=Covino|first2=Stefano|last3=Čvančarová|first3=Monika|last4=Filipová|first4=Alena|last5=Petruccioli|first5=Maurizio|last6=D'Annibale|first6=Alessandro|last7=Cajthaml|first7=Tomáš|title=Bioremediation of long-term PCB-contaminated soil by white-rot fungi|journal=Journal of Hazardous Materials|date=15 February 2017|volume=324|issue=Pt B|pages=701–710|doi=10.1016/j.jhazmat.2016.11.044|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27894756|language=en|issn=1873-3336|quote=P. ostreatus efficiently colonized the soil samples and suppressed other fungal genera. However, the same fungus substantially stimulated bacterial taxa that encompass putative PCB degraders. }}</ref>.
The mechanisms are not always clear<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Young|first1=Darcy|last2=Rice|first2=James|last3=Martin|first3=Rachael|last4=Lindquist|first4=Erika|last5=Lipzen|first5=Anna|last6=Grigoriev|first6=Igor|last7=Hibbett|first7=David|title=Degradation of Bunker C Fuel Oil by White-Rot Fungi in Sawdust Cultures Suggests Potential Applications in Bioremediation|journal=PLoS ONE|date=25 June 2015|volume=10|issue=6|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0130381|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4482389/|accessdate=25 September 2017|issn=1932-6203|quote=The mechanisms by which P. strigosozonata may degrade complex oil compounds remain obscure, but degradation results of the 180-day cultures suggest that diverse white-rot fungi have promise for bioremediation of petroleum fuels.}}</ref>, and sometimes the mushroom is probably more a starter of subsequent microbial activity than effective in itself in the removal itself<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Stella|first1=Tatiana|last2=Covino|first2=Stefano|last3=Čvančarová|first3=Monika|last4=Filipová|first4=Alena|last5=Petruccioli|first5=Maurizio|last6=D'Annibale|first6=Alessandro|last7=Cajthaml|first7=Tomáš|title=Bioremediation of long-term PCB-contaminated soil by white-rot fungi|journal=Journal of Hazardous Materials|date=15 February 2017|volume=324|issue=Pt B|pages=701–710|doi=10.1016/j.jhazmat.2016.11.044|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27894756|language=en|issn=1873-3336|quote=P. ostreatus efficiently colonized the soil samples and suppressed other fungal genera. However, the same fungus substantially stimulated bacterial taxa that encompass putative PCB degraders. }}</ref>.

=== Dyes ===

[[dye|Dyes]] are very used in many industries, like paper printing or textile. They are often recalcitant to degradation and in some cases, like some [[azo dyes]], [[cancerogenic]] or otherwise toxic.

The mechanism the fungi degrade this dyes is their lignolityc enzymes, especially laccase, so white rot mushrooms are the most commonly used.

Mycoremediation has proven to be a cheap and effective remediation technology for dyes such as [[Malachite green]], [[Nigrosin]] and [[Basic fuchsin]] with ''[[Aspergillus niger]]'' and ''[[Phanerochaete chrysosporium]]''<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rani|first1=Babita|last2=Kumar|first2=Vivek|last3=Singh|first3=Jagvijay|last4=Bisht|first4=Sandeep|last5=Teotia|first5=Priyanku|last6=Sharma|first6=Shivesh|last7=Kela|first7=Ritu|title=Bioremediation of dyes by fungi isolated from contaminated dye effluent sites for bio-usability|journal=Brazilian Journal of Microbiology|date=9 October 2014|volume=45|issue=3|pages=1055–1063|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4204947/|accessdate=25 September 2017|language=en|issn=1517-8382|quote=Aspergillus niger recorded maximum decolorization of the dye Basic fuchsin (81.85%) followed by Nigrosin (77.47%), Malachite green (72.77%) and dye mixture (33.08%) under shaking condition. Whereas, P. chrysosporium recorded decolorization to the maximum with the Nigrosin (90.15%) followed by Basic fuchsin (89.8%), Malachite green (83.25%) and mixture (78.4%).}}</ref> and [[Congo red]], a carcirogenic dye recalcitrant to biodegradative processes<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bhattacharya|first1=Sourav|last2=Das|first2=Arijit|last3=G|first3=Mangai|last4=K|first4=Vignesh|last5=J|first5=Sangeetha|title=Mycoremediation of congo red dye by filamentous fungi|journal=Brazilian Journal of Microbiology: [publication of the Brazilian Society for Microbiology]|date=2011|volume=42|issue=4|pages=1526–1536|doi=10.1590/S1517-838220110004000040|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24031787|accessdate=25 September 2017|language=en|issn=1517-8382|quote=the decolourisation obtained at optimized conditions varied between 29.25- 97.28% at static condition and 82.1- 100% at shaking condition}}</ref>, [[Direct Blue 14|direct blue 14]] (using ''Pleurotus'')<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Singh|first1=M. P.|last2=Vishwakarma|first2=S. K.|last3=Srivastava|first3=A. K.|title=Bioremediation of Direct Blue 14 and Extracellular Ligninolytic Enzyme Production by White Rot Fungi: Pleurotus Spp.|journal=BioMed Research International|date=2013|volume=2013|doi=10.1155/2013/180156|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3693104/|accessdate=25 September 2017|issn=2314-6133}}</ref>

Revision as of 16:34, 28 September 2017

Mycoremediation (from ancient Greek μύκης (mukēs), meaning "fungus" and the suffix -remedium, in Latin meaning 'restoring balance') is a form of bioremediation in which fungi-based technology is used to decontaminate the environment. Fungi have been proven to be a very cheap, effective and environmentally sound way for helping to remove a wide array of toxins from damaged environments or wastewater. The toxins include heavy metals,persistent organic pollutants, textile dyes, leather tanning industries, petroleum fuels, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon, pharmaceuticals and personal care products, pesticides and herbicide[1], in land, sweet water and marine environments. The byproducts of the remediation can be valuable material themself, such as enzymes (like laccase[2]), edible or medicinal mushrooms[3], making the remediation process even profitable.

Pollutants

Fungi, thanks to their non-specific enzymes, are able to break down many kind of substances. They are used for pharmaceuticals and fragrances that normally are recalcitant to bacteria degradation[4], such as paracetamol, the breakdown products of which are toxic in traditional water treatment, using Mucor hiemalis[5], but also the phenols and pigments of wine distillery wastewater[6], X-ray contrast agents and ingredients of personal care products[7]

Mycoremediation is one of the cheaper solutions to remediation, and it doesn't usually require expensive equipment. For this reasons it is often used also in small scale applications, such as mycofiltration of domestic wastewater[8], and to help with the decomposition process of a compost toilet.

Metals

Pollution from metals is very common, as they are used in many industrial processes such as electroplating, paint and leather. The wastewater from this industries is often used for agricultural purposes, so beside the immediate damage to the ecosystem it is spilled into, the metals can enter far away creatures and humans through the foodchain. Mycoremediation is one of the cheapest, most effective and environmental-friendly solution to this problem.[9]. Many fungi are hyperaccumulators, that means they are able to concentrate toxins in their fruiting bodies for later removal. This is usually true for populations that have been exposed to contaminants for long time, and have developed a high tolerance, and happens via biosorption on the cellulare surface, which means that the metals enter the mycelium in a passive way with very little intracellular uptake[10]. A variety of fungi, such as Pleurotus, Aspergillus, Trichoderma has proven to be effective in the removal of lead[11][12], cadmium[13], nickel[14][15], chromium[16], mercury[17], arsenic[18], copper[19][20], boron[21], iron and zinc[22] in marine environment, wastewater and on land.

Not all the individuals of a species are effective in the same way in the accumulation of toxins. The single individuals are usually selected from an old-time polluted environment, such as sludge or wastewater, where they had time to adapt to the circumstances, and the selection is carried on in the laboratory. A diluition of the water can drastically improve the ability of biosorption of the fungi[23].

The capacity of certain fungi to extract metals from the ground also can be useful for bioindicator purposes, and can be a problem when the mushroom is an edible one. For example, the Shaggy Ink Cap (Coprinus comatus), a common edible north-emisphere mushroom, can be a very good bioindicator of mercury, and accumulate it in its body, which can also be intoxicating for the consumer[24].

The capacity of metals uptake of mushroom has also been used to recover precious metals from medium. VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland reported an 80% recovery of gold from electronic waste using mycofiltration techniques.[1][better source needed].

Organic pollutant

Fungi are amongst the primary saprobes organism in an ecosystem, that means that they are very efficient in decompose matter. wood-decay fungi, especially white rot, secretes extracellular enzymes and acids that break down lignin and cellulose, the two main building blocks of plant fiber. These are organic compounds composed of long chains of carbon and hydrogen, structurally similar to many organic pollutants. They do so using a wide array of enzymes. In the case of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(PAHs), complex organic compounds with fused, highly stable, polycondensed aromatic rings, fungi are very effective[25] also in marine environment[26]. The enzymes involved in the degradation are ligninolytic and include lignin peroxidase, versatile peroxidase, Manganese peroxidase, general lipase , laccase and sometimes intracellular enzymes are used, especially the cytochrome P450[27][28]

Other toxins fungi are able to degrade into harmless compunds include petroleum fuels[29], phenols in wastewater[30], Polychlorinated biphenyl(PCB) in contaminated soils, using Pleurotus ostreatus.[31],polyurethane in aerobic and anaerobic conditions such as found at the bottom of landfills using two species of the Ecuadorian fungus Pestalotiopsis[32], and more[33].

The mechanisms are not always clear[34], and sometimes the mushroom is probably more a starter of subsequent microbial activity than effective in itself in the removal itself[35].

Dyes

Dyes are very used in many industries, like paper printing or textile. They are often recalcitant to degradation and in some cases, like some azo dyes, cancerogenic or otherwise toxic.

The mechanism the fungi degrade this dyes is their lignolityc enzymes, especially laccase, so white rot mushrooms are the most commonly used.

Mycoremediation has proven to be a cheap and effective remediation technology for dyes such as Malachite green, Nigrosin and Basic fuchsin with Aspergillus niger and Phanerochaete chrysosporium[36] and Congo red, a carcirogenic dye recalcitrant to biodegradative processes[37], direct blue 14 (using Pleurotus)[38]

  1. ^ Deshmukh, Radhika; Khardenavis, Anshuman A.; Purohit, Hemant J. (2016). "Diverse Metabolic Capacities of Fungi for Bioremediation". Indian Journal of Microbiology. 56 (3): 247–264. doi:10.1007/s12088-016-0584-6. ISSN 0046-8991. Retrieved 24 September 2017.
  2. ^ Strong, P. J.; Burgess, J. E. (2007). "Bioremediation of a wine distillery wastewater using white rot fungi and the subsequent production of laccase". Water Science and Technology: A Journal of the International Association on Water Pollution Research. 56 (2): 179–186. ISSN 0273-1223. Retrieved 26 September 2017. Trametes pubescens MB 89 greatly improved the quality of a wastewater known for toxicity towards biological treatment systems, while simultaneously producing an industrially relevant enzyme.
  3. ^ Kulshreshtha, Shweta; Mathur, Nupur; Bhatnagar, Pradeep (1 April 2014). "Mushroom as a product and their role in mycoremediation". AMB Express. 4: 29. doi:10.1186/s13568-014-0029-8. ISSN 2191-0855. The cultivation of edible mushroom on agricultural and industrial wastes may thus be a value added process capable of converting these discharges, which are otherwise considered to be wastes, into foods and feeds{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  4. ^ Harms, Hauke; Schlosser, Dietmar; Wick, Lukas Y. (2011). "Untapped potential: exploiting fungi in bioremediation of hazardous chemicals". Nature Reviews Microbiology. 9 (3): 188. doi:10.1038/nrmicro2519. ISSN 1740-1526. Retrieved 26 September 2017. municipal wastewater contains small concentrations of the ingredients of many consumer products and drugs. Many of these contaminants do not lend themselves to bacterial degradation because of distinctly xenobiotic structures. {{cite journal}}: More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  5. ^ Esterhuizen-Londt, Maranda; Schwartz, Katrin; Pflugmacher, Stephan (2016). "Using aquatic fungi for pharmaceutical bioremediation: Uptake of acetaminophen by Mucor hiemalis does not result in an enzymatic oxidative stress response". Fungal Biology. 120 (10): 1249–1257. doi:10.1016/j.funbio.2016.07.009. ISSN 1878-6146.
  6. ^ Strong, P. J.; Burgess, J. E. (2007). "Bioremediation of a wine distillery wastewater using white rot fungi and the subsequent production of laccase". Water Science and Technology: A Journal of the International Association on Water Pollution Research. 56 (2): 179–186. ISSN 0273-1223. Retrieved 26 September 2017. Trametes pubescens MB 89 greatly improved the quality of a wastewater known for toxicity towards biological treatment systems
  7. ^ Harms, Hauke; Schlosser, Dietmar; Wick, Lukas Y. (2011). "Untapped potential: exploiting fungi in bioremediation of hazardous chemicals". Nature Reviews Microbiology. 9 (3): 184. doi:10.1038/nrmicro2519. ISSN 1740-1526. ligninolytic basidiomycetes and mitosporic ascomycetes, including aquatic fungi, are known to degrade EDCs (nonylphenol, bisphenol A and 17α-ethinylestradiol); analgesic, anti-epileptic and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs; X-ray contrast agents; polycyclic musk fragrances; and ingredients of personal care products {{cite journal}}: More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  8. ^ Molla, Abul Hossain; Fakhru'l-Razi, Ahmadun (2012). "Mycoremediation--a prospective environmental friendly technique of bioseparation and dewatering of domestic wastewater sludge". Environmental Science and Pollution Research International. 19 (5): 1612–1619. doi:10.1007/s11356-011-0676-0. ISSN 1614-7499. Retrieved 27 September 2017. Within 2-3 days of treatment application, encouraging results were achieved in total dry solids (TDS), total suspended solid (TSS), turbidity, chemical oxygen demand (COD), specific resistance to filtration (SRF), and pH due to fungal treatment in recognition of bioseparation and dewaterability of wastewater sludge compared to control.
  9. ^ Joshi, P. K.; Swarup, Anand; Maheshwari, Sonu; Kumar, Raman; Singh, Namita (October 2011). "Bioremediation of Heavy Metals in Liquid Media Through Fungi Isolated from Contaminated Sources". Indian Journal of Microbiology. 51 (4): 482–487. doi:10.1007/s12088-011-0110-9. ISSN 0046-8991. Retrieved 25 September 2017. Wastewater particularly from electroplating, paint, leather, metal and tanning industries contain enormous amount of heavy metals. Microorganisms including fungi have been reported to exclude heavy metals from wastewater through bioaccumulation and biosorption at low cost and in eco-friendly way.
  10. ^ Gazem, MufedaA.H.; Nazareth, Sarita (1 June 2013). "Sorption of lead and copper from an aqueous phase system by marine-derived Aspergillus species". Annals of Microbiology. 63 (2): 503–511. doi:10.1007/s13213-012-0495-7. ISSN 1590-4261. Retrieved 25 September 2017. The sequestration of the metal occurred mainly by sorption to the cell-surface with very little intracellular uptake.
  11. ^ Gazem, MufedaA.H.; Nazareth, Sarita (1 June 2013). "Sorption of lead and copper from an aqueous phase system by marine-derived Aspergillus species". Annals of Microbiology. 63 (2): 503–511. doi:10.1007/s13213-012-0495-7. ISSN 1590-4261. Retrieved 25 September 2017. Selected cultures displayed a good sorption capacity of 32 - 41 mg Pb2+ and 3.5 - 6.5 mg Cu2+ g-1 dry weight of mycelia
  12. ^ Joshi, P. K.; Swarup, Anand; Maheshwari, Sonu; Kumar, Raman; Singh, Namita (October 2011). "Bioremediation of Heavy Metals in Liquid Media Through Fungi Isolated from Contaminated Sources". Indian Journal of Microbiology. 51 (4): 482–487. doi:10.1007/s12088-011-0110-9. ISSN 0046-8991. Retrieved 25 September 2017.
  13. ^ Joshi, P. K.; Swarup, Anand; Maheshwari, Sonu; Kumar, Raman; Singh, Namita (October 2011). "Bioremediation of Heavy Metals in Liquid Media Through Fungi Isolated from Contaminated Sources". Indian Journal of Microbiology. 51 (4): 482–487. doi:10.1007/s12088-011-0110-9. ISSN 0046-8991. Retrieved 25 September 2017.
  14. ^ Cecchi, Grazia; Roccotiello, Enrica; Di Piazza, Simone; Riggi, Alex; Mariotti, Mauro Giorgio; Zotti, Mirca (4 March 2017). "Assessment of Ni accumulation capability by fungi for a possible approach to remove metals from soils and waters". Journal of Environmental Science and Health. Part. B, Pesticides, Food Contaminants, and Agricultural Wastes. 52 (3): 166–170. doi:10.1080/03601234.2017.1261539. ISSN 1532-4109. This latter [Trichoderma harzianum strain] hyperaccumulates up to 11,000 mg Ni kg-1, suggesting its possible use in a bioremediation protocol able to provide a sustainable reclamation of broad contaminated areas.
  15. ^ Joshi, P. K.; Swarup, Anand; Maheshwari, Sonu; Kumar, Raman; Singh, Namita (October 2011). "Bioremediation of Heavy Metals in Liquid Media Through Fungi Isolated from Contaminated Sources". Indian Journal of Microbiology. 51 (4): 482–487. doi:10.1007/s12088-011-0110-9. ISSN 0046-8991. Retrieved 25 September 2017.
  16. ^ Joshi, P. K.; Swarup, Anand; Maheshwari, Sonu; Kumar, Raman; Singh, Namita (October 2011). "Bioremediation of Heavy Metals in Liquid Media Through Fungi Isolated from Contaminated Sources". Indian Journal of Microbiology. 51 (4): 482–487. doi:10.1007/s12088-011-0110-9. ISSN 0046-8991. Retrieved 25 September 2017.
  17. ^ Kurniati, Evi; Arfarita, Novi; Imai, Tsuyoshi; Higuchi, Takaya; Kanno, Ariyo; Yamamoto, Koichi; Sekine, Masahiko (1 June 2014). "Potential bioremediation of mercury-contaminated substrate using filamentous fungi isolated from forest soil". Journal of Environmental Sciences (China). 26 (6): 1223–1231. doi:10.1016/S1001-0742(13)60592-6. ISSN 1001-0742. Retrieved 25 September 2017. The strain was able to remove 97.50% and 98.73% mercury from shaken and static systems respectively. A. flavus strain KRP1 seems to have potential use in bioremediation of aqueous substrates containing mercury(II) through a biosorption mechanism.
  18. ^ Singh, M.; Srivastava, P. K.; Verma, P. C.; Kharwar, R. N.; Singh, N.; Tripathi, R. D. (2015). "Soil fungi for mycoremediation of arsenic pollution in agriculture soils". Journal of Applied Microbiology. 119 (5): 1278–1290. doi:10.1111/jam.12948. ISSN 1365-2672. Retrieved 25 September 2017. These fungal strains [Aspergillus oryzae FNBR_L35; Fusarium sp. FNBR_B7, FNBR_LK5 and FNBR_B3; Aspergillus nidulans FNBR_LK1; Rhizomucor variabilis sp. FNBR_B9; and Emericella sp. FNBR_BA5] can be used for As remediation in As-contaminated agricultural soils.
  19. ^ Gazem, MufedaA.H.; Nazareth, Sarita (1 June 2013). "Sorption of lead and copper from an aqueous phase system by marine-derived Aspergillus species". Annals of Microbiology. 63 (2): 503–511. doi:10.1007/s13213-012-0495-7. ISSN 1590-4261. Retrieved 25 September 2017. Selected cultures displayed a good sorption capacity of 32 - 41 mg Pb2+ and 3.5 - 6.5 mg Cu2+ g-1 dry weight of mycelia
  20. ^ Zotti, Mirca; Di Piazza, Simone; Roccotiello, Enrica; Lucchetti, Gabriella; Mariotti, Mauro Giorgio; Marescotti, Pietro (2014). "Microfungi in highly copper-contaminated soils from an abandoned Fe-Cu sulphide mine: growth responses, tolerance and bioaccumulation". Chemosphere. 117: 471–476. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.08.057. ISSN 1879-1298. Retrieved 25 September 2017.
  21. ^ Taştan, Burcu Ertit; Çakir, Dilara Nur; Dönmez, Gönül (2016). "A new and effective approach to boron removal by using novel boron-specific fungi isolated from boron mining wastewater". Water Science and Technology: A Journal of the International Association on Water Pollution Research. 73 (3): 543–549. doi:10.2166/wst.2015.519. ISSN 0273-1223. Retrieved 27 September 2017. The maximum boron removal yield by P. crustosum was 45.68% at 33.95 mg l(-1) initial boron concentration in MSM, and was 38.97% at 42.76 mg l(-1) boron for R. mucilaginosa, which seemed to offer an economically feasible method of removing boron from the effluents.
  22. ^ Vaseem, Huma; Singh, V. K.; Singh, M. P. (2017). "Heavy metal pollution due to coal washery effluent and its decontamination using a macrofungus, Pleurotus ostreatus". Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 145: 42–49. doi:10.1016/j.ecoenv.2017.07.001. ISSN 1090-2414. Efficiency of Pleurotus for remediation of heavy metals was found to be highest in the 50% diluted effluent (57.2% Mn, 82.6% Zn, 98.0% Ni, 99.9% Cu, 99.3% Co, 99.1% Cr, 89.2% Fe and 35.6% Pb
  23. ^ Vaseem, Huma; Singh, V. K.; Singh, M. P. (2017). "Heavy metal pollution due to coal washery effluent and its decontamination using a macrofungus, Pleurotus ostreatus". Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 145: 42–49. doi:10.1016/j.ecoenv.2017.07.001. ISSN 1090-2414.
  24. ^ Falandysz, Jerzy (2016). "Mercury bio-extraction by fungus Coprinus comatus: a possible bioindicator and mycoremediator of polluted soils?". Environmental Science and Pollution Research International. 23 (8): 7444–7451. doi:10.1007/s11356-015-5971-8. ISSN 1614-7499. Retrieved 25 September 2017. Eating them when foraged from the urban places can provide to a consumer Hg at relatively high dose, while unresolved question is absorption rate of Hg compounds contained in ingested mushroom meal.
  25. ^ Batista-García, Ramón Alberto; Kumar, Vaidyanathan Vinoth; Ariste, Arielle; Tovar-Herrera, Omar Eduardo; Savary, Olivier; Peidro-Guzmán, Heidy; González-Abradelo, Deborah; Jackson, Stephen A.; Dobson, Alan D. W.; Sánchez-Carbente, María Del Rayo; Folch-Mallol, Jorge Luis; Leduc, Roland; Cabana, Hubert (1 August 2017). "Simple screening protocol for identification of potential mycoremediation tools for the elimination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and phenols from hyperalkalophile industrial effluents". Journal of Environmental Management. 198 (Pt 2): 1–11. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.05.010. ISSN 1095-8630. Retrieved 25 September 2017. The levels of adsorption of the phenolic and PAHs were negligible with 99% biodegradation being observed in the case of benzo-α-pyrene, phenol and p-chlorophenol
  26. ^ Passarini, Michel R. Z.; Rodrigues, Marili V. N.; da Silva, Manuela; Sette, Lara D. (2011). "Marine-derived filamentous fungi and their potential application for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon bioremediation". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 62 (2): 364–370. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2010.10.003. ISSN 1879-3363. Retrieved 25 September 2017. The fungus Aspergillus sclerotiorum CBMAI 849 showed the best performance with regard to pyrene (99.7%) and benzo[a]pyrene (76.6%) depletion after 8 and 16 days, respectively. [..] Because these fungi were adapted to the marine environment, the strains that were used in the present study are considered to be attractive targets for the bioremediation of saline environments, such as ocean and marine sediments that are contaminated by PAHs.
  27. ^ Deshmukh, Radhika; Khardenavis, Anshuman A.; Purohit, Hemant J. (2016). "Diverse Metabolic Capacities of Fungi for Bioremediation". Indian Journal of Microbiology. 56 (3): 247–264. doi:10.1007/s12088-016-0584-6. ISSN 0046-8991. Retrieved 25 September 2017. certain fungi possess intracellular networks which constitute the xenome, consisting of cytochrome (CYP) P450 monooxygenases and the glutathione transferases for dealing with diverse range of pollutants.
  28. ^ Pozdnyakova, Natalia N. (2012). "Involvement of the ligninolytic system of white-rot and litter-decomposing fungi in the degradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons". Biotechnology Research International. 2012: 243217. doi:10.1155/2012/243217. ISSN 2090-3146. Retrieved 25 September 2017. Ligninolytic fungi, such as Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Bjerkandera adusta, and Pleurotus ostreatus, have the capacity of PAH degradation. The enzymes involved in the degradation of PAHs are ligninolytic and include lignin peroxidase, versatile peroxidase, Mn-peroxidase, and laccase.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  29. ^ Young, Darcy; Rice, James; Martin, Rachael; Lindquist, Erika; Lipzen, Anna; Grigoriev, Igor; Hibbett, David (25 June 2015). "Degradation of Bunker C Fuel Oil by White-Rot Fungi in Sawdust Cultures Suggests Potential Applications in Bioremediation". PLoS ONE. 10 (6). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0130381. ISSN 1932-6203. Averaging across all studied species, 98.1%, 48.6%, and 76.4% of the initial Bunker C C10 alkane, C14 alkane, and phenanthrene, respectively were degraded after 180 days of fungal growth on pine media.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  30. ^ Batista-García, Ramón Alberto; Kumar, Vaidyanathan Vinoth; Ariste, Arielle; Tovar-Herrera, Omar Eduardo; Savary, Olivier; Peidro-Guzmán, Heidy; González-Abradelo, Deborah; Jackson, Stephen A.; Dobson, Alan D. W.; Sánchez-Carbente, María Del Rayo; Folch-Mallol, Jorge Luis; Leduc, Roland; Cabana, Hubert (1 August 2017). "Simple screening protocol for identification of potential mycoremediation tools for the elimination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and phenols from hyperalkalophile industrial effluents". Journal of Environmental Management. 198 (Pt 2): 1–11. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.05.010. ISSN 1095-8630. When this wastewater was supplemented with 0.1 mM glucose, all of the tested fungi, apart from A. caesiellus, displayed the capacity to remove both the phenolic and PAH compounds
  31. ^ Stella, Tatiana; Covino, Stefano; Čvančarová, Monika; Filipová, Alena; Petruccioli, Maurizio; D'Annibale, Alessandro; Cajthaml, Tomáš (15 February 2017). "Bioremediation of long-term PCB-contaminated soil by white-rot fungi". Journal of Hazardous Materials. 324 (Pt B): 701–710. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2016.11.044. ISSN 1873-3336. The best results were obtained with P. ostreatus, which resulted in PCB removals of 18.5, 41.3 and 50.5% from the bulk, top (surface) and rhizosphere, respectively, of dumpsite soils after 12 weeks of treatment
  32. ^ "Biodegradation of Polyester Polyurethane by Endophytic Fungi". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. July 2011.
  33. ^ Harms, Hauke; Schlosser, Dietmar; Wick, Lukas Y. (2011). "Untapped potential: exploiting fungi in bioremediation of hazardous chemicals". Nature Reviews Microbiology. 9 (3): 179. doi:10.1038/nrmicro2519. ISSN 1740-1526. Retrieved 26 September 2017. species of the genera Cladophialophora and Exophiala (of the order Chaetothyriales) assimilate toluene. Aspergillus and Penicillium spp. (of the order Eurotiales) degrade aliphatic hydrocarbons, chlorophe- nols, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAhs), pesticides, synthetic dyes and 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TnT). metabolization of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) is reported for the genera Cordyceps and Fusarium (of the order hypocreales), as well as for Pseudallescheria spp. (of the order microascales). The mitosporic Acremonium spp. degrade PAhs and Royal Demolition Explosive (RDX), and Graphium spp. degrade methyl-tert-butylether (mTBE) . outside of the Pezizomycotina, Phoma spp. degrade PAhs, pesticides and synthetic dyes . The subphylum Saccharomycotina mostly consists of yeasts and includes degraders of n-alkanes, n-alkylbenzenes, crude oil, the endocrine dis- rupting chemical (EDC) nonylphenol, PAhs and TnT (in the genera Candida, Kluyveromyces, Neurospora, Pichia, Saccharomyces and Yarrowia {{cite journal}}: More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  34. ^ Young, Darcy; Rice, James; Martin, Rachael; Lindquist, Erika; Lipzen, Anna; Grigoriev, Igor; Hibbett, David (25 June 2015). "Degradation of Bunker C Fuel Oil by White-Rot Fungi in Sawdust Cultures Suggests Potential Applications in Bioremediation". PLoS ONE. 10 (6). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0130381. ISSN 1932-6203. Retrieved 25 September 2017. The mechanisms by which P. strigosozonata may degrade complex oil compounds remain obscure, but degradation results of the 180-day cultures suggest that diverse white-rot fungi have promise for bioremediation of petroleum fuels.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  35. ^ Stella, Tatiana; Covino, Stefano; Čvančarová, Monika; Filipová, Alena; Petruccioli, Maurizio; D'Annibale, Alessandro; Cajthaml, Tomáš (15 February 2017). "Bioremediation of long-term PCB-contaminated soil by white-rot fungi". Journal of Hazardous Materials. 324 (Pt B): 701–710. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2016.11.044. ISSN 1873-3336. P. ostreatus efficiently colonized the soil samples and suppressed other fungal genera. However, the same fungus substantially stimulated bacterial taxa that encompass putative PCB degraders.
  36. ^ Rani, Babita; Kumar, Vivek; Singh, Jagvijay; Bisht, Sandeep; Teotia, Priyanku; Sharma, Shivesh; Kela, Ritu (9 October 2014). "Bioremediation of dyes by fungi isolated from contaminated dye effluent sites for bio-usability". Brazilian Journal of Microbiology. 45 (3): 1055–1063. ISSN 1517-8382. Retrieved 25 September 2017. Aspergillus niger recorded maximum decolorization of the dye Basic fuchsin (81.85%) followed by Nigrosin (77.47%), Malachite green (72.77%) and dye mixture (33.08%) under shaking condition. Whereas, P. chrysosporium recorded decolorization to the maximum with the Nigrosin (90.15%) followed by Basic fuchsin (89.8%), Malachite green (83.25%) and mixture (78.4%).
  37. ^ Bhattacharya, Sourav; Das, Arijit; G, Mangai; K, Vignesh; J, Sangeetha (2011). "Mycoremediation of congo red dye by filamentous fungi". Brazilian Journal of Microbiology: [publication of the Brazilian Society for Microbiology]. 42 (4): 1526–1536. doi:10.1590/S1517-838220110004000040. ISSN 1517-8382. Retrieved 25 September 2017. the decolourisation obtained at optimized conditions varied between 29.25- 97.28% at static condition and 82.1- 100% at shaking condition
  38. ^ Singh, M. P.; Vishwakarma, S. K.; Srivastava, A. K. (2013). "Bioremediation of Direct Blue 14 and Extracellular Ligninolytic Enzyme Production by White Rot Fungi: Pleurotus Spp". BioMed Research International. 2013. doi:10.1155/2013/180156. ISSN 2314-6133. Retrieved 25 September 2017.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
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