Digging: Difference between revisions
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#REDIRECT [[Excavation]] |
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{{redirect|Dig}} |
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{{other uses|Digging (disambiguation)}} |
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[[File:Zeus, Digging For China.jpg|thumb|right|A dog digging on a beach.]] |
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[[File:Hunterian Psalter c. 1170 digging.jpg|thumb|right|Twelfth century illustration of a man digging.]] |
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[[File:Group of gum diggers in gumfield (1908).jpg|thumb|right|A group of men digging for [[Kauri gum]] in [[New Zealand]].]] |
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[[File:US Navy 060127-N-4215N-005 Equipment Operator 3rd Class Tyler Randall assigned to Naval Mobile Construction Battalion Four (NMCB-4), Det San Clemente Island operates an excavator during a rock crushing evolution.jpg|thumb|right|Construction equipment being used to dig up rocky ground.]] |
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'''Digging''', also referred to as '''excavation''', is the process of using some implement such as [[claw]]s, [[hand]]s, manual [[tool]]s or [[heavy equipment]], to remove material from a solid surface, usually [[soil]] or [[sand]] on the surface of the [[Earth]]. Digging is actually the combination of two processes, the first being the breaking or [[cutting]] of the surface, and the second being the removal and relocation of the material found there.<ref name="Dreher">Carl Dreher, "[https://books.google.com/books?id=byEDAAAAMBAJ&pg=RA1-PA179&dq=%22earth-moving+jobs+are+done+nowadays+by+machine%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAGoVChMIpcHNnsHixgIVxhU-Ch2ZRQAf#v=onepage&q=%22earth-moving%20jobs%20are%20done%20nowadays%20by%20machine%22&f=false The Right Way to Dig]", ''[[Popular Science]]'' (March 1957), p. 179.</ref> In a simple digging situation, this may be accomplished in a single motion, with the digging implement being used to break the surface and immediately fling the material away from the hole or other structure being dug. |
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Many kinds of animals engage in digging, either as part of [[burrowing]] behavior or to search for [[food]] or [[water]] under the surface of the ground.<ref name="Faulkes">Zen Faulkes, "[https://books.google.com/books?id=yqWkmpmE2twC&pg=PA276&dq=%22Morphological+adaptations+for+digging+and+burrowing%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CB4Q6AEwAGoVChMI-4C0s_vixgIVSx0-Ch2GrQlg#v=onepage&q=%22Morphological%20adaptations%20for%20digging%20and%20burrowing%22&f=false Morphological Adaptations for Digging and Burrowing]" (2013), p. 276-295.</ref> Historically, humans have engaged in digging for both of these reasons, and for a variety of additional reasons, such as engaging in [[agriculture]] and [[gardening]], searching for [[minerals]], [[metals]], and other [[raw materials]] such as during [[mining]] and [[quarrying]], preparing for [[construction]], creating [[fortifications]] and [[irrigation]], and also [[Excavation (archaeology)|excavations]] in [[archaeology]], searching for [[fossil]]s and rocks in [[palaeontology]] and [[geology]] and [[burial]] of the dead. |
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==Digging by humans== |
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===Reasons=== |
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There are a wide variety of reasons for which humans dig holes, trenches, and other subsurface structures. It has long been observed that humans have a seemingly instinctive desire to dig holes in the ground, manifesting in [[childhood]]: |
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{{quote|Some children like to dig holes into the ground without any definite purpose. These are of various sizes and depth and are often called a lake or pit. A favorite effort is to dig tunnels between two holes. The digging of underground passages seems to have a peculiar fascination for children.<ref>R.A. Archer, "Spontaneous Constructions and Primitive Activities of Children Analogous to Those of Primitive Man", in Karl M. Dallenbach, Madison Bentley, Edwin Garrigues Boring, eds., ''The American Journal of Psychology'' (1910), p. 119.</ref>}} |
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Like other animals, humans dig in the ground to find food and water. Wood-lined [[water well]]s are known from the early Neolithic [[Linear Pottery culture]], for example in Kückhoven (an outlying centre of [[Erkelenz]]), dated 5090 BC and [[Eythra]], dated 5200 BC in Schletz (an outlying centre of [[Asparn an der Zaya]]) in [[Austria]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Early Neolithic Water Wells Reveal the World's Oldest Wood Architecture |vauthors=Tegel W, Elburg R, Hakelberg D, Stäuble H, Büntgen U |year=2012 |journal=PLoS ONE |volume=7 |issue=12 |page=e51374 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0051374 |url=http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0051374 |pmid=23284685 |pmc=3526582}}</ref> Humans are unique among animals in the practice of [[burial of the dead]]. Intentional burial, particularly with [[grave goods]], may be one of the earliest detectable forms of religious practice since, as [[Philip Lieberman]] suggests, it may signify a "concern for the dead that transcends daily life."<ref name="lieberman">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3tS2MULo5rYC&pg=PA162&dq=Uniquely+Human+cognitive-linguistic+base| title=Uniquely Human|isbn=0-674-92183-6| year=1991| authorlink=Philip Lieberman |author=Philip Lieberman. |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts}}</ref> Evidence suggests that the [[Neanderthals]] were the first [[Homo|human species]] to practice burial behavior and intentionally bury their dead, doing so in shallow graves along with stone tools and animal bones.<ref name="NYT-20131216">{{cite news |last=Wilford |first=John Noble |title=Neanderthals and the Dead |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/17/science/neanderthals-and-the-dead.html|date=December 16, 2013 |work=[[New York Times]] |accessdate=December 17, 2013 }}</ref><ref>Chris Scarre, The Human Past</ref> Exemplary sites include [[Shanidar]] in Iraq, [[Kebara Cave]] in Israel and [[Krapina]] in Croatia. Some scholars, however, argue that these bodies may have been disposed of for [[secular]] reasons.<ref name="evolving_graves">{{cite web|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1200/is_24_160/ai_81827792/pg_1 |title=Evolving in their graves: early burials hold clues to human origins - research of burial rituals of Neanderthals |publisher=Findarticles.com |date=2001-12-15 |accessdate=2011-03-25}}</ref> Notably, burial of the dead prevents diseases associated with the presence of corpses, and prevents [[scavenger]]s and other predators from being attracted. |
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The earliest undisputed [[homo sapiens|human]] burial, discovered so far, dates back 100,000 years. Human skeletal remains stained with [[red ochre]] were discovered in the Skhul cave at [[Qafzeh]], Israel. A variety of grave goods were present at the site, including the mandible of a wild boar in the arms of one of the skeletons.<ref name="lieberman2">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3tS2MULo5rYC&pg=PA163&dq=Uniquely+Human++qafzeh&ei=F-AeR_ntI5WGpgLkrsWzBg&sig=k7GcMq8PU_B6tX56Cf95ENxmJIQ |title=Uniquely Human page 163 |publisher=Books.google.com |date= |accessdate=2011-03-25}}</ref> |
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As human technology advanced, digging began to be used for [[agriculture]], [[mining]], and in [[Earthworks (engineering)|earthworks]], and new techniques and technologies were developed to suit these purposes. |
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====Borrow pit==== |
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[[File:American35.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An [[excavator]] working in a borrow pit.]] |
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In [[construction]] and [[civil engineering]], a '''borrow pit''', also known as a sand box, is an area where material (usually [[soil]], [[gravel]] or [[sand]]) has been dug for use at another location.<ref>[http://www.sandandgravel.com/news/article.asp?v1=8160 Design of a monitoring protocol/plan for sand borrow areas, Dredging News Online, 7 January 2000]</ref> Borrow pits can be found close to many major construction projects. For example, soil might be excavated to [[Fill dirt|fill]] an embankment for a [[highway]], [[clay]] might be excavated for use in [[brick]]-making, gravel to be used for making [[concrete]], etc. |
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In some cases, the borrow pits may become filled with [[ground water]], forming [[recreation]]al areas or sustainable [[wildlife]] [[Habitat (ecology)|habitat]]s (one such example is the Merton Borrow Pit, near [[Oxford]] in central [[England]], excavated to provide materials for the nearby [[M40 motorway]]). In other cases, borrow pits may be used for [[landfill]] and [[waste disposal]]. |
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A regional variation of this is termed "'''barrow pit'''" in the western United States (especially the Rocky Mountains). The localism—sometimes pronounced "borrer pit"—describes the ditch along a roadway. These ditches were created to provide the fill to level and crown the roadway and subsequently provided drainage for the road.<ref>Cassidy, Frederic Gomes, and Joan Houston Hall (eds). (2002) ''Dictionary of American Regional English''. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.</ref> |
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An '''excavation lake''' (also a '''flooded gravel pit''') is an artificial [[lake]], which usually has its origins in the excavation of [[gravel]] or [[sand]] for construction materials or in some other kind of [[surface mining]]. In many cases, the excavation holes are landscaped according to the [[land restoration]] required by law. Because the excavation reached a point below the [[water table]], lakes form naturally. Less frequently excavation lakes are intentionally created, especially as [[recreation area]]s. |
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In Germany the lakes are almost always used for fishing, since a fishery is created by law with every surface water. At some excavation lakes, beaches are added for swimming or other [[water sports]], in particular boating, water skiing or windsurfing. To support these uses, large parking lots, changing areas, and eating areas are also set up. In some cases, the excavation lake serves as a nature reserve, as in the case of the lakes in the [[Attenborough Nature Reserve]]. |
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[[File:Baggersee-Panorama.jpg|700x700px|thumb|center|Panorama of a "young" excavation lake in the [[Fürstenfeldbruck (district)|Fürstenfeldbruck district]] of Germany.]] |
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===Methods of digging=== |
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Although humans are capable of digging in sand and soil using their bare hands, digging is often more easily accomplished with tools. The most basic tool for digging is the [[shovel]].<ref name="Dreher"/> In [[neolithic]] times and earlier, a large animal's [[scapula]] (shoulder blade) was often used as a crude shovel.<ref name="ConciseOxfordDictArchaeol">[https://books.google.com/books?id=iSd8hm5kImwC&pg=PA304#v=onepage&f=false Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology], p. 304.</ref> In modern times, shovels are typically made of metal, with a wooden handle. Because digging is a cutting process, particularly where the soil being dug contains plant [[Root|roots]], digging is aided by the shovel being sharpened.<ref>David Tracey, "[https://books.google.com/books?id=Ix196EqLG5MC&pg=PA119&dq=%22how+to+dig+a+hole%22+%22Dig+when+your+soil+is+wet%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CB4Q6AEwAGoVChMIhs-Q2L_nxgIVQlqICh11FgmP#v=onepage&q=%22how%20to%20dig%20a%20hole%22%20%22Dig%20when%20your%20soil%20is%20wet%22&f=false How to dig a hole]", ''Urban Agriculture: Ideas and Designs for the New Food Revolution'' (2011), p. 119.</ref> |
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Historically, manual shoveling (often in combination with [[pickaxe|picking]]) was the chief means of excavation in construction, [[mining]], and [[quarry]]ing, and digging projects employed large numbers of people. After the [[Industrial Revolution]], [[mechanization]] via [[steam shovel]]s and later [[hydraulics|hydraulic]] equipment ([[excavator]]s such as [[backhoe]]s and [[loader (equipment)|loaders]]) gradually replaced most manual shoveling; however, individual homeowners still often find reasons to engage in manual digging during smaller-scale projects around the home.<ref name="Dreher"/> |
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===Soil suitability=== |
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{{See also|Engineering geology|Geotechnical engineering|Rock mechanics|Geophysics}} |
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The '''excavatability''' of an earth (rock and [[regolith]]) material is a measure of the material to be excavated (dug) with conventional excavation equipment such as a [[bulldozer]] with [[Bulldozer#Ripper|ripper]]s, [[backhoe]], [[Wheel tractor-scraper|scraper]] and other grading equipment. Materials that cannot be excavated with conventional excavation equipment are said to be non-[[rippable]]. Such material typically requires pre-[[Rock blasting|blasting]] or use of percussion hammers or chisels to facilitate excavation. The excavatability or [[rippability]] of earth materials is evaluated typically by a [[geophysicist]], [[engineering geologist]], or [[geotechnical engineer]]. |
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The '''rippability''' of an earth ([[rock (geology)|rock]]) material is a measure of its ability to be excavated with conventional excavation equipment.<ref>{{cite book |author= W. Ed Wightman, Frank Jalinoos, Philip Sirles, and Kanaan Hanna |title=Application of Geophysical Methods to Highway Related Problems |year=2003 |chapter=6.2.3 Determining the Rippability of Rocks |pages=318–322 |publisher=Federal Highway Administration, Central Federal Lands Highway Div. |url=http://www.cflhd.gov/agm/engapplications/SubsurfaceChartacter/623DeterminingRippabilityRock.htm }}(accessed 17-Sep-2009)</ref> A material may be classified as rippable, marginally rippable or non-rippable. The rippability of a material is often evaluated by an [[engineering geologist]] and/or [[geophysicist]] utilizing the [[seismic refraction]] equipment (see [[refraction]]),.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=F. MacGregor |author2=R. Fell |author3=G. R. Mostyn |author4=G. Hocking |author5=G. McNally |last-author-amp=yes |title=The estimation of rock rippability |journal=Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology & Hydrogeology |year=1994 |volume=27 |issue= 2|pages=123–144 |doi=10.1144/GSL.QJEGH.1994.027.P2.04}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=D. M. McCann |author2=P.J. Fenning |lastauthoramp=yes |title=Estimation of rippability and excavation conditions from seismic velocity measurements |journal=Geological Society, London, Engineering Geology Special Publications |year=1995 |volume=10 |pages=335–343 |doi=10.1144/GSL.ENG.1995.010.01.29}}</ref> Rippability studies can involve the performance of [[seismic refraction]] traverses, the drilling of [[Boring (earth)|boring]]s with an air percussion drill rig, the excavation of test trenches with a bulldozer with rippers or backhoe, and by geologic mapping. |
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==Cave-in== |
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'''Cave-in''' in an excavation is the detachment of the mass of soil in the side of [[trench]] and the sudden displacement inside the excavation which represent a [[hazard]] to the person inside.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ehs.ufl.edu/programs/os/trenching/|title=Trenching and Excavation Policy » Environmental Health & Safety » University of Florida|website=www.ehs.ufl.edu|accessdate=20 January 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Carl O.|first1=Morgan|title=Excavation Safety: A Guide to OSHA Compliance and Injury Prevention|publisher=Government Institutes|pages=10}}</ref> Cave-ins is considered as the most critical risk beside other related hazards within trenches.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailyrecord.com/story/news/crime/morris-county/2018/01/18/boonton-company-admits-criminal-fault-deaths-two-workers-trench-collapse/1043291001/|title=Boonton company admits criminal fault in deaths of two workers in trench collapse|website=dailyrecord.com|accessdate=20 January 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.businessinsurance.com/article/20171222/NEWS08/912318114/Alabama-construction-company-penalty-for-trenching-hazard-affirmed|title=Alabama construction company penalty for trenching hazard affirmed - Business Insurance|website=businessinsurance.com|accessdate=20 January 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.osha.gov/Publications/trench_excavation_fs.html|title=Trenching and Excavation Safety|website=www.osha.gov|accessdate=20 January 2018}}</ref>The reasons that lead to cave-ins fall between pressure on soil, [[Ground vibrations|vibration]] of equipment and excess loads. Cave-ins in excavation is prevented using sloping, [[Trench shoring|shoring]] and [[Trench shield|shielding]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.labour.gov.on.ca/english/hs/sawo/pubs/fs_trenches.php|title=Excavation Hazards (Fact Sheet)|first=Government of Ontario, Ministry of|last=Labour|website=www.labour.gov.on.ca|accessdate=20 January 2018}}</ref> |
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==Types of digging== |
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* [[Excavation (archaeology)|Archaeological excavation]] |
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** [[Dump digging]] |
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* [[Cave digging]] |
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* [[Clam digging]] |
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* [[Double digging]], gardening technique |
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* [[Gum digging]] |
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* [[Privy digging]] |
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* [[Well digging]] |
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==References== |
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{{reflist}} |
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==External links== |
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{{wiktionary|dig|digging}} |
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{{Geotechnical engineering}} |
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[[Category:Excavations| ]] |
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Revision as of 15:07, 5 December 2019
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