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==== Carbon capture ====
==== Carbon capture ====
Agrobiodiversity contributes to carbon capture if used as part of a package of agroecological practices, for example by providing cover crops which can be dug into the land as green manure; maintaining tree stands and hedgerows; and protecting the integrity of soils so that they continue to house local microbes. Farmers and breeders can use genetic diversity to breed varieties which are more tolerant to changing climate conditions, and which combined with practices like conservation agriculture, can increase sequestration in soils and biomass, and reduce emissions by avoiding the degrading of farmlands.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ortiz|first=R.|title=Agrobiodiversity Management for Food Security: A Critical Review|publisher=CABI|year=2011|isbn=1845937791|editor-last=Lenné|editor-first=Jillian M.|location=|pages=|chapter=12. Agrobiodiversity management for climate change|editor-last2=Wood|editor-first2=David}}</ref> Using [[agroforestry]], the inclusion of trees and shrubs as an integral part of a farming system, can also successfully sequester carbon.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/747105265|title=Carbon sequestration potential of agroforestry systems : opportunities and challenges|date=2011|publisher=Springer|others=Mohan Kumar, B., Nair, P. K. R.|isbn=978-94-007-1630-8|location=Dordrecht|oclc=747105265}}</ref>
Agrobiodiversity contributes to carbon capture if used as part of a package of agroecological practices, for example by providing cover crops which can be dug into the land as green manure; maintaining tree stands and hedgerows; and protecting the integrity of soils so that they continue to house local microbes. Farmers and breeders can use genetic diversity to breed varieties which are more tolerant to changing climate conditions, and which, combined with practices like conservation agriculture, can increase sequestration in soils and biomass, and reduce emissions by avoiding the degrading of farmlands.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ortiz|first=R.|title=Agrobiodiversity Management for Food Security: A Critical Review|publisher=CABI|year=2011|isbn=1845937791|editor-last=Lenné|editor-first=Jillian M.|location=|pages=|chapter=12. Agrobiodiversity management for climate change|editor-last2=Wood|editor-first2=David}}</ref> Using [[agroforestry]], the inclusion of trees and shrubs as an integral part of a farming system, can also successfully sequester carbon.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/747105265|title=Carbon sequestration potential of agroforestry systems : opportunities and challenges|date=2011|publisher=Springer|others=Mohan Kumar, B., Nair, P. K. R.|isbn=978-94-007-1630-8|location=Dordrecht|oclc=747105265}}</ref>


=== Cultural ===
=== Cultural ===
Agrobiodiversity is central to cultural ecosystem services in the form of food biodiversity, which is central to local cuisines worldwide. Agrobiodiversity provides locally appreciated crops and species, and also unique varieties which have cultural significance. For example, the red rice developed by Chinese farmers over generations to use in celebrations is an example of cultural biodiversity. Another example is the local food fairs in Italy, epitomized by Slow Food, which celebrate local food varieties (e.g. Cinta di Siena pigs, or the lentils from Onano). In addition, some traditional cultures use agrobiodiversity in cultural rituals, e.g. the offering of a certain citrus fruit in shrines in [Thailand CHECK].value of abd Home gardens have been identified as culturally constructed spaces where agrobiodiversity is conserved for a wide variety of social, aesthetic and cultural reasons.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Galluzzi|first=Gea|last2=Eyzaguirre|first2=Pablo|last3=Negri|first3=Valeria|date=2010|title=Home gardens: neglected hotspots of agro-biodiversity and cultural diversity|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10531-010-9919-5|journal=Biodiversity and Conservation|language=en|volume=19|issue=13|pages=3635–3654|doi=10.1007/s10531-010-9919-5|issn=0960-3115|via=}}</ref>
Agrobiodiversity is central to cultural ecosystem services in the form of food biodiversity, which is central to local cuisines worldwide. Agrobiodiversity provides locally appreciated crops and species, and also unique varieties which have cultural significance. For example, ethnic traditional cultures influence the conservation of a wide diversity of rice varieties in China (e.g. red rice, sweet glutinous rices) developed by farmers over 1000s of year and used in traditional cultures, rituals and customs.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Yanjie|last2=Wang|first2=Yanli|last3=Sun|first3=Xiaodong|last4=Caiji|first4=Zhuoma|last5=Yang|first5=Jingbiao|last6=Cui|first6=Di|last7=Cao|first7=Guilan|last8=Ma|first8=Xiaoding|last9=Han|first9=Bing|last10=Xue|first10=Dayuan|last11=Han|first11=Longzhi|date=2016-10-27|title=Influence of ethnic traditional cultures on genetic diversity of rice landraces under on-farm conservation in southwest China|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0120-0|journal=Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine|volume=12|issue=1|pages=51|doi=10.1186/s13002-016-0120-0|issn=1746-4269|pmc=PMC5084377|pmid=27788685}}</ref> Another example are local food fairs, epitomized by the [[Slow Food]] movement, which celebrates local food varieties in order to add value to them, raise awareness about them and ultimately conserve and use them. In addition, some traditional cultures use agrobiodiversity in cultural rituals, e.g. many populations of fruit species (pomelo and mango) are maintained in rural communities specifically for use at the '[[Chhath|Chhath Puja]]' festival, celebrated in parts of India, Nepal and Mauritius.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Singh|first=A.|title=Tropical Fruit Tree Diversity: Good practices for in situ and on-farm conservation|last2=Nath|first2=V.|last3=Singh|first3=S.K.|last4=Sthapit|first4=B.|last5=Reddy|first5=B.M.C.|work=|publisher=Earthscan from Routledge|year=2016|isbn=978-1-315-75845-9|editor-last=Sthapit|editor-first=Bhuwon|location=New York|pages=217-225|chapter=17. The role of a tradtional festival, Chhath Puja, in the conservation and sustainable use of traditional fruits|editor-last2=Lamers|editor-first2=Hugo A.H.|editor-last3=Rao|editor-first3=V. Ramanatha|editor-last4=Bailey|editor-first4=Arwen}}</ref> Home gardens are important as culturally constructed spaces where agrobiodiversity is conserved for a wide variety of social, aesthetic and cultural reasons.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Galluzzi|first=Gea|last2=Eyzaguirre|first2=Pablo|last3=Negri|first3=Valeria|date=2010|title=Home gardens: neglected hotspots of agro-biodiversity and cultural diversity|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10531-010-9919-5|journal=Biodiversity and Conservation|language=en|volume=19|issue=13|pages=3635–3654|doi=10.1007/s10531-010-9919-5|issn=0960-3115|via=}}</ref> Genetic diversity is maintained by resource-poor farmers because of many non-monetary values, including culture and food. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sthapit|first=Bhuwon|last2=Rana|first2=Ram|last3=Eyzaguirre|first3=Pablo|last4=Jarvis|first4=Devra|date=2008|title=The value of plant genetic diversity to resource-poor farmers in Nepal and Vietnam|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.3763/ijas.2007.0291|journal=International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability|language=en|volume=6|issue=2|pages=148–166|doi=10.3763/ijas.2007.0291|issn=1473-5903|via=}}</ref>


== Loss of agrobiodiversity ==
== Loss of agrobiodiversity ==

Revision as of 08:14, 14 February 2020

Unusual strains of maize are examples of crop diversity and can be used as the basis for breeding new varieties.

Agricultural biodiversity is a sub-set of general biodiversity. Otherwise known as agrobiodiversity, agricultural biodiversity is a broad term that includes "the variety and variability of animals, plants and micro-organisms at the genetic, species and ecosystem levels that sustain the ecosystem structures, functions and processes in and around production systems, and that provide food and non-food agricultural products.”[1] Created and managed by farmers, pastoralists, fishers and forest dwellers, agrobiodiversity provides stability, adaptability and resilience and constitutes a key element of the livelihood strategies of rural communities throughout the world.[2] Agrobiodiversity is central to sustainable food systems and sustainable diets. The use of agricultural biodiversity can contribute to food security, nutrition security, and livelihood security, and it is critical for climate adaptation and climate mitigation.[3][4][5]

History of the term

It is not clear when exactly the term agrobiodiversity was coined nor by whom. The 1990 annual report of the International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR, now Bioversity International)[6] is one of the earliest references to biodiversity in the context of agriculture. Most references to agricultural biodiversity date from the late 1990s onwards. [refs needed FAO Thrupp, Altieri..]

While similar, different definitions are used by different bodies to describe biodiversity in connection with food production. CGIAR tends to use agricultural biodiversity or agrobiodiversity, while the Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN (FAO) uses 'biodiversity for food and agriculture' and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) uses the term 'agricultural diversity'. The CBD more or less (but not entirely) excludes marine aquatic organisms and forestry in its usage because they have their own groups and international frameworks for discussion of international policies and actions. Decision V/5 of the CBD[7] provides the framing description.

Levels of agrobiodiversity

Genetic diversity

Genetic diversity refers to the variety and variability within and between species. It can refer to the naturally occurring genetic variability within and between populations of a species, for example wild relatives of food crops, or to the variability created by humans, for example farmer-developed traditional crop varieties called landraces, or commercially bred varieties of a crop (e.g. different apple varieties: Fuji, Golden Delicious, Golden Pippin, etc.). There is considerable genetic diversity within all food crop species, particularly in centres of origin, which are the geographical areas where species were originally developed. For example, the Andean region of Peru is a centre of origin for certain tuber species, and over 1,483 varieties of these species can be found there. Genetic diversity is important as different genes give rise to important traits, such as nutrient composition, hardiness to different environments, resistance to pests, or ample harvests.[8] Genetic diversity is decreasing due to agricultural modernization, changing land use and climate change, among other factors. Genetic diversity is not static but is constantly evolving in response to changes in the environment and according to human intervention, whether farmers or breeders.

Species diversity

Species diversity refers to the number and abundance of different species used for food and agriculture. The number of species considered to contribute to food alone ranges from 5,538 to 75,000 depending on definitions.[9] A conservative estimate is that about 6,000 species are commonly used for food. Species diversity includes "the domesticated plants and animals that are part of crop, livestock, forest or aquaculture systems, harvested forest and aquatic species, the wild relatives of domesticated species, and other wild species harvested for food and other products. It also encompasses what is known as “associated biodiversity”, the vast range of organisms that live in and around food and agricultural production systems, sustaining them and contributing to their output." Agriculture is understood to include crop and livestock production, forestry, fisheries and aquaculture.[10]

Aquatic diversity is an important component of agricultural biodiversity. The conservation and sustainable use of local aquatic ecosystems, ponds, rivers, coastal commons by artisanal fisherfolk and smallholder farmers is important to the survival of both humans and the environment. Since aquatic organisms, including fish, provide much of our food supply as well as underpinning the income of coastal peoples, it is critical that fisherfolk and smallholder farmers have genetic reserves and sustainable ecosystems to draw upon as aquaculture and marine fisheries management continue to evolve.

Ecosystem diversity

Ecosystem diversity refers to the variety and variability of different components in a given geographical area (e.g. landscape, country). In the context of agrobiodiversity ecosystem diversity refers to the diversity within and between agroecosystems: e.g. pastures, ponds and rivers, planted fields, hedges, trees and so on. Landscape-level biodiversity has received less research attention than the other levels of biodiversity.[11]

Contributions of agrobiodiversity to food and agriculture

Introduction

Contributions from agrobiodiversity to food and agriculture are usually categorized by their contribution to ecosystem services. Ecosystem services are the services provided by well functioning ecosystems (agroecosystems and also wild ecosystems such as forests or grasslands) to human wellbeing.[12] They are usually clustered into four broader categories: provisioning (direct provision of goods such as food and water), supporting (the services that are needed for agriculture to be healthy, such as soil), regulating (regulating natural processes needed in agriculture such as pollination, carbon capture or pest control), or cultural (recreational, aesthetic and spiritual benefits).[12]

Provisioning

Agrobiodiversity's contribution to provisioning services is mainly for providing food and nutrition. Food biodiversity is "the diversity of plants, animals and other organisms used for food, covering the genetic resources within species, between species and provided by ecosystems."[13] Historically at least 6,000 plant species and numerous animal species have been used as human food. This number is considered to be decreasing now, resulting in concerns about long-term diet diversity. Food biodiversity also covers subspecies or varieties of crops, for example the many forms of the Brassica oleracea species (cauliflowers, different broccolis, cabbages, Brussel sprouts, etc.). Many species which have been overlooked by mainstream research ('orphan' or 'neglected and underutilized' species) are rich in micronutrients and other healthful components.[14][15][16] Also among different varieties of a species, there can be a wide variety of nutrient composition; for example some sweet potato varieties contain negligible levels of beta-carotene, which others can contain up to 23,100 mcg per 100g of raw, peeled sweet potatoes.[17] Other provisioning services from agrobiodiversity are the provision of wood, fibre, fuel, water and medicinal resources. Sustainable food security is linked to improving the conservation, sustainable use and enhancement of the diversity of all genetic resources for food and agriculture, especially plant and animal genetic resources, in all types of production systems.[18]

Supporting

Agrobiodiversity's contribution to supporting services is providing the biological or life support to production, emphasising conservation, sustainable use and enhancement of the biological resources that support sustainable production systems. The main service is to maintain genetic diversity of crops and species, so that it is available to maintain adaptability to new and changing climate and weather conditions. Genetic diversity is the basis of crop and livestock improvement programmes, which breed new varieties of crops and livestock in response to consumer demand and farmers' needs. An important source of genetic diversity are crop wild relatives, wild plant species that are genetically related to cultivated crops. A second supporting service is to maintain the habitat of wild biodiversity, particularly associated biodiversity, for example pollinators and predators. Agrobiodiversity can support wild biodiversity through the use of field margins, riparian corridors, hedgerows and clumps of trees, which provide and connect habitats. A further supporting service is maintaining healthy soil biota.

Regulating

Agrobiodiversity makes several contributions to regulating services, which control the natural processes needed for a healthy agroecosystem. Pollination, pest control and carbon capture are examples.

Polllination

75% of the 115 major crop species grown globally rely on pollinators.[19][20] Agrobiodiversity contributes to the health of pollinators by: (a) providing habitat for them to live and breed; (b) providing non-chemical biological options for pest control (see below) so that insecticide use can be reduced, and insect pollinators not damaged; (c) providing a symbiotic relationship of constant flower production, with crops flowering at different times, so that the pollinators have constant access to nectar-producing flowers.

Pest control

Agrobiodiversity contributes to pest control by: (a) providing a habitat for pests' natural enemies to live and breed in; (b) providing wide genetic diversity which means it is more likely that genes contain resistance to any given pathogen or pest, and also that the plant can evolve as pests and diseases evolve.[21] Genetic diversity also means that some crops grow earlier or later, or in wetter or drier conditions, so the crop might avoid attacks from the pest or pathogen.[22]

Carbon capture

Agrobiodiversity contributes to carbon capture if used as part of a package of agroecological practices, for example by providing cover crops which can be dug into the land as green manure; maintaining tree stands and hedgerows; and protecting the integrity of soils so that they continue to house local microbes. Farmers and breeders can use genetic diversity to breed varieties which are more tolerant to changing climate conditions, and which, combined with practices like conservation agriculture, can increase sequestration in soils and biomass, and reduce emissions by avoiding the degrading of farmlands.[23] Using agroforestry, the inclusion of trees and shrubs as an integral part of a farming system, can also successfully sequester carbon.[24]

Cultural

Agrobiodiversity is central to cultural ecosystem services in the form of food biodiversity, which is central to local cuisines worldwide. Agrobiodiversity provides locally appreciated crops and species, and also unique varieties which have cultural significance. For example, ethnic traditional cultures influence the conservation of a wide diversity of rice varieties in China (e.g. red rice, sweet glutinous rices) developed by farmers over 1000s of year and used in traditional cultures, rituals and customs.[25] Another example are local food fairs, epitomized by the Slow Food movement, which celebrates local food varieties in order to add value to them, raise awareness about them and ultimately conserve and use them. In addition, some traditional cultures use agrobiodiversity in cultural rituals, e.g. many populations of fruit species (pomelo and mango) are maintained in rural communities specifically for use at the 'Chhath Puja' festival, celebrated in parts of India, Nepal and Mauritius.[26] Home gardens are important as culturally constructed spaces where agrobiodiversity is conserved for a wide variety of social, aesthetic and cultural reasons.[27] Genetic diversity is maintained by resource-poor farmers because of many non-monetary values, including culture and food. [28]

Loss of agrobiodiversity

Agrobiodiversity is threatened by changing patterns of land use (urbanization, deforestation), agricultural modernization (monocultures and abandoning of traditional, biodiversity-based practices); Westernization of diets and their supply chains.[29] https://www.researchgate.net/publication/288324326_Genetic_Diversity_and_Erosion-A_Global_Perspective It has been estimated that biodiversity as a whole is being lost at 100–1000 times the natural background rate (Chivian and Berstein in Sustaining life on earth. How human health depends on biodiversity. Oxford University Press, New York, 2008, Chivian and Berstein in How our health depends on biodiversity. Center for Health and the global environment. Harvard medical school, Boston, 2010; Pimm et al. in Science 344, 2014).(Butchart et al. in Science 328:1164–1168, 2010 This extends also to agricultural biodiversity. Agrobiodiversity loss leads to genetic erosion, the loss of genetic diversity, including the loss of individual genes, and the loss of particular combinations of genes (or gene complexes) such as those manifested in locally adapted landraces or breeds.

Consequences of agrobiodiversity loss

Genetic vulnerability occurs when there is little genetic diversity within a population of plants. This lack of diversity makes the population as a whole particularly vulnerable to disease, pests, or other factors. The problem of genetic vulnerability often arises with modern crop varieties, which are uniform by design.[30][31] An example of the consequences of genetic vulnerability occurred in 1970 when corn blight struck the US corn belt, destroying 15% of the harvest. A particular plant cell characteristic known as Texas male sterile cytoplasm conferred vulnerability to the blight - a subsequent study by the National Academy of Sciences found that 90% of American maize plants carried this trait.[32]

Reduced agrobiodiversity causes, and is caused by, changes in human diets. Since the mid-1900s, human diets across the world have become more diverse in the consumption of major commodity staple crops, with a corollary decline in consumption of local or regionally important crops, and thus have become more homogeneous globally.[33] The differences between the foods eaten in different countries decreased by 68% between 1961 and 2009. The modern 'global standard'[33] diet contains an increasingly large percentage of a relatively small number of major staple commodity crops, which have increased substantially in the share of the total food energy (calories), protein, fat, and food weight that they provide to the world's human population, including wheat, rice, sugar, maize, soybean (by +284%[34]), palm oil (by +173%[34]), and sunflower (by +246%[34]). Whereas nations used to consume greater proportions of locally or regionally important food biodiversity, wheat has become a staple in over 97% of countries, with the other global staples showing similar dominance worldwide. Other crops have declined sharply over the same period, including rye, yam, sweet potato (by -45%[34]), cassava (by -38%[34]), coconut, sorghum (by -52%[34]) and millets (by -45%[34]).[33][34][35]

Conservation

Attempts to conserve or safeguard usually focus on species or genetic level of agrobiodiversity. Conservation of genetic diversity and species diversity can be carried out ex situ, which means removing the materials from their growing site and looking after them elsewhere, or in situ, which means that they are conserved in their natural or cultivated site. (dulloo, hunter borelli 2010) While these two approaches are sometimes pitted against each other as either/or, both have merits. Conservation practitioners recommend integrating both methods, according to the purpose of conservation, threats, uniqueness of diversity, etc.

in situ conservation

In situ conservation means conserving species, breeds and varieties in farmers' fields or in the wild where they naturally occur as crop wild relatives or managed plant populations. Conserving in situ has the benefit that species can continue to evolve in response to natural and human pressures. It is also a way to conserve the maximum number of species and varieties. For trees, in situ conservaiton is considered the most appropriate method since most trees' seeds cannot be conserved ex situ, and because there are XXXXX tree species, each with multiple populations, so too many to identify and collect. In situ conservation requires the resources of willing farmers and land managers, but apart from that are low cost. They can make use of community seedbanks to ensure availability of high quality seed. However, species and varieties conserved in situ can be vulnerable to climate changes, land use changes and market demand. Smallholder farmers and rural communities are often custodians of agrobiodiversity. Home gardens are repositories of high levels of species diversity,[36] and traditional landraces contain wide genetic diversity. Smallholder farmers represent xxx of all farmers, producing xxx of the world's food, so their contribution to in situ conservation is considerable. Having limited access to synthetic inputs, their fields are often organic by default not design. A meta-analysis of studies comparing biodiversity noted that, when compared to organic cropping systems, conventional systems had significantly lower species richness and abundance (30% greater richness and 50% greater abundance in organic systems, on average), though 16% of studies did find a greater level of species richness in conventional systems.[37] mention NUS. and Jarvis, Padoch and Cooper (2007) and Jarvis Brown and Cuong 2008 PNAS.

certain countries are centres of origin or centres of diversity, and the focus of most in situ conservation efforts

Ex situ conservation

Ex situ conservation means removing species, breeds or varieties from where they are normally found and keeping them safe in a managed environment: botanical garden, seedbank, genebank, or herbarium. Ex situ conservation is considered the safest way of maintaining genetic diversity, since it is preserved in perpetuity and can no longer change. Most of hte world's major crops have been extensively collected and conserved in genebanks. Collections are replicated as an insurance in case of damage to one genebank. In addition, most globally important collections have a back up in the Svalbard seed vault. One weakness of ex situ conservation is that it is costly to maintain seeds and germplasm healthily in perpetual storage. In addition, coverage of the diversity neglected and underutilized crops or crop wild relatives is very limited. Genetic materials maintained ex situ can no longer adapt. Ex situ conservation is not typically used for trees or livestock, although spermbanks do exist, as do collections of some trees, such as bananas.

ecosystem level conservation

There are limited initiatives that focus on conserving entire landscapes or agro-ecosystems. One is 'Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems' (GIAHS),  

International negotiations

See also

Notes and references

  1. ^ United Nations Food and Agriculure Organization (1999). "What is Agrobiodiversity". United Nations Food and Agriculure Organization.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  2. ^ the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and the Platform for Agrobiodiversity Research (2011). Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture. Rome, Italy. p. 2. ISBN 978-92-5-106748-2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  3. ^ Frison, E.A.; Cherfas, J.; Hodgkin, T. (2011). "Agricultural Biodiversity Is Essential for a Sustainable Improvement in Food and Nutrition Security". Sustainability. 3: 238–253. doi:10.3390/su3010238.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  4. ^ Mijatović, Dunja; Van Oudenhoven, Frederik; Eyzaguirre, Pablo; Hodgkin, Toby (2013). "The role of agricultural biodiversity in strengthening resilience to climate change: towards an analytical framework". International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability. 11 (2): 95–107. doi:10.1080/14735903.2012.691221. ISSN 1473-5903.
  5. ^ "FAO, (2008). Climate Change and Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture" (PDF).{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  6. ^ International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR) (1990). IBPGR Annual Report (PDF).
  7. ^ Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (2000). "Decision V/5 Agricultural biological diversity: review of phase I of the programme of work and adoption of a multi-year work programme". Convention on Biological Diversity.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  8. ^ Hajjar, Reem; Jarvis, Devra I.; Gemmill-Herren, Barbara (2008). "The utility of crop genetic diversity in maintaining ecosystem services". Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. 123 (4): 261–270. doi:10.1016/j.agee.2007.08.003.
  9. ^ Bioversity International (2017). Mainstreaming Agrobiodiversity in Sustainable Food Systems: Scientific Foundations for an Agrobiodiversity Index. Rome, Italy: Bioversity International. p. 3. ISBN 978-92-9255-070-7.
  10. ^ FAO Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. "The State of the World's Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture". Retrieved 10 February 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  11. ^ Vitousek, P.M.; Benning, T.L. (1995). Ecosystem and Landscape Diversity: Islands as Model Systems. Springer. pp. 73–84. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  12. ^ a b Ecosystems and human well-being : synthesis. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (Program). Washington, DC: Island Press. 2005. ISBN 1-59726-040-1. OCLC 59279709.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  13. ^ FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) and Bioversity International (2017). Guidelines on Assessing Biodiverse Foods in Dietary Intake Surveys. Rome, Italy: FAO. p. 2. ISBN 978-92-5-109598-0.
  14. ^ Hunter, Danny; Burlingame, Barbara; Remans, Roseline (2015). "6". Biodiversity and nutrition. Geneva Switzerland: World Health Organization and Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity. ISBN 978 92 4 150853 7. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  15. ^ Padulosi, S.; International, Bioversity; Thompson, J.; Rudebjer, P. G. (2013). Fighting poverty, hunger and malnutrition with neglected and underutilized species: needs, challenges and the way forward. Bioversity International. ISBN 978-92-9043-941-7.
  16. ^ "Species Database: Biodiversity for Food and Nutrition". www.b4fn.org. Retrieved 2020-02-10.
  17. ^ Burlingame, B.; Charrondiere, R.; Mouille, B. (2009). "Food composition is fundamental to the cross-cutting initiative on biodiversity for food and nutrition". Journal of Food Composition and Analysis. 43: 361–365.
  18. ^ Thrupp, L. A. (2000). "Linking agricultural biodiversity and food security: the valuable role of agrobiodiversity for sustainable agriculture" (PDF). International Affairs. 76 (2): 265–281. doi:10.1111/1468-2346.00133.
  19. ^ Klein, Alexandra-Maria; Vaissière, Bernard E; Cane, James H; Steffan-Dewenter, Ingolf; Cunningham, Saul A; Kremen, Claire; Tscharntke, Teja (2007-02-07). "Importance of pollinators in changing landscapes for world crops". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 274 (1608): 303–313. doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3721. PMC 1702377. PMID 17164193.
  20. ^ The assessment report on pollinators, pollination and food production: summary for policymakers. Potts, Simon G.,, Imperatriz-Fonseca, Vera Lúcia.,, Ngo, Hien T.,, Biesmeijer, Jacobus C.,, Breeze, Thomas D.,, Dicks, Lynn V.,. Bonn, Germany. ISBN 978-92-807-3568-0. OCLC 1026068029.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: others (link)
  21. ^ Jarvis, D.I.; Brown, A.H.D.; Imbruce, V.; Ochoa, J.; Sadiki, M.; Karamura, E.; Trutmann, P.; Finckh, M.R. (2007). "11. Managing crop disease in traditional agroecosystems". In Jarvis, D.I.; Padoch, C.; Cooper, H.D. (eds.). Managing Biodiversity in Agricultural Ecosystems. New York, USA: Columbia University Press. ISBN 023113648X.
  22. ^ Gurr, Geoff M.; Wratten, Stephen D.; Luna, John Michael (2003). "Multi-function agricultural biodiversity: pest management and other benefits". Basic and Applied Ecology. 4 (2): 107–116.
  23. ^ Ortiz, R. (2011). "12. Agrobiodiversity management for climate change". In Lenné, Jillian M.; Wood, David (eds.). Agrobiodiversity Management for Food Security: A Critical Review. CABI. ISBN 1845937791.
  24. ^ Carbon sequestration potential of agroforestry systems : opportunities and challenges. Mohan Kumar, B., Nair, P. K. R. Dordrecht: Springer. 2011. ISBN 978-94-007-1630-8. OCLC 747105265.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  25. ^ Wang, Yanjie; Wang, Yanli; Sun, Xiaodong; Caiji, Zhuoma; Yang, Jingbiao; Cui, Di; Cao, Guilan; Ma, Xiaoding; Han, Bing; Xue, Dayuan; Han, Longzhi (2016-10-27). "Influence of ethnic traditional cultures on genetic diversity of rice landraces under on-farm conservation in southwest China". Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 12 (1): 51. doi:10.1186/s13002-016-0120-0. ISSN 1746-4269. PMC 5084377. PMID 27788685.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  26. ^ Singh, A.; Nath, V.; Singh, S.K.; Sthapit, B.; Reddy, B.M.C. (2016). "17. The role of a tradtional festival, Chhath Puja, in the conservation and sustainable use of traditional fruits". In Sthapit, Bhuwon; Lamers, Hugo A.H.; Rao, V. Ramanatha; Bailey, Arwen (eds.). Tropical Fruit Tree Diversity: Good practices for in situ and on-farm conservation. New York: Earthscan from Routledge. pp. 217–225. ISBN 978-1-315-75845-9.
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Relevant literature

  • Santilli, Juliana. 2012. Agrobiodiversity and the Law: Regulating Genetic Resources, Food Security and Cultural Diversity. London: Routledge. doi.org/10.4324/9780203155257

Video

External links

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