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| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref>{{cite iucn|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/details/22694716/0 |title=''Onychoprion aleuticus'' |author=IUCN |author-link=IUCN Red List of Threatened Species |year=2017 |access-date=18 January 2018|ref=harv}}</ref>
| status_ref = <ref>{{cite iucn|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/details/22694716/0 |title=''Onychoprion aleuticus'' |author=IUCN |author-link=IUCN Red List of Threatened Species |year=2017 |access-date=18 January 2018|ref=harv}}</ref>
⚫
| image = Aleutian Tern.jpg

| image_caption = {{Birdsong|species = the Aleutian tern|url = https://www.xeno-canto.org/species/Onychoprion-aleuticus}}
⚫
| image=Aleutian Tern.jpg
| genus = Onychoprion
| genus = Onychoprion
| species = aleuticus
| species = aleuticus
| authority = ([[Spencer Fullerton Baird|Baird]], 1869)
| authority = ([[Spencer Fullerton Baird|Baird]], 1869)
| range_map = [[File:Bn,n,;Aleutian tern distribut1280px-World map blank gmt.svg.png|thumb|Aleutian Tern Distribution]]
| synonyms =
| range_map_caption = {{leftlegend|#00FF00|Breeding|outline=gray}} {{leftlegend|#007FFF|Non-breeding|outline=gray}}
''Onychoprion aleutica'' <small>(''[[lapsus]]'')</small><br />
| synonyms = ''Onychoprion aleutica'' <small>(''[[lapsus]]'')</small><br />
''Sterna aleutica'' <small>Baird, 1869</small>
''Sterna aleutica'' <small>Baird, 1869</small>
}}
}}


This species breeds in colonies on coasts and islands in [[Alaska]] and easternmost [[Siberia]]. It is a long distance [[Bird migration|migrant]], wintering in [[Australasia]] and [[Oceania]], near [[Indonesia]], [[Philippines]], [[Papua New Guinea]], and points in between. Large numbers appear off [[China]] and points south to [[Malaysia]] during passage periods.

It is a very rare vagrant to western [[Europe]], with just one record, on the [[Coquet Island]] off [[Northumberland]], England on 28–29 May 1979.

It lays 2–3 eggs in a ground scrape. It sometimes nests among [[Arctic tern]]s, which, like most white terns, are fiercely defensive of their nest and young and will attack large predators. The Aleutian tern, however, is not aggressive in defense of its nests or young.


Like most other terns, the Aleutian tern feeds by plunge-diving for fish, usually from saline environments. The offering of fish by the male to the female is part of the courtship display.
Like most other terns, the Aleutian tern feeds by plunge-diving for fish, usually from saline environments. The offering of fish by the male to the female is part of the courtship display.
Line 88: Line 84:


=== Breeding and Parental Behaviour ===
=== Breeding and Parental Behaviour ===
Aleutian Terns breed in [[Bird colony|colonies]], and are [[Philopatry|site-faithful]] if their habitat is sufficiently stable<ref name=":5">{{Citation|title=Tern|date=2020-08-07|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tern&oldid=971698033|work=Wikipedia|language=en|access-date=2020-10-15}}</ref>. Pairs form on the breeding area, shortly after arrival. The pairs build the nest during the last half of May and first half of June, shortly before egg-laying<ref name=":0" />. The typical clutch size is 2 eggs (occasionally 1 or 3)<ref name=":0" />. The nests are usually built on vegetation such as mosses, lichens, field horsetail, cottongrass, hairgrass or coastal bluegrass<ref name=":0" />. Both parents incubate the eggs and feed the chicks, although the female does more [[Egg incubation|incubating]] and less fishing than her partner<ref name=":5" />. Aleutian Terns are reported to spend less time brooding chicks than do [[Arctic tern|Arctic Terns]]; consequently, Aleutian Tern mortality rate is higher during the chick stage<ref name=":0" />.
Aleutian Terns breed in [[Bird colony|colonies]], and are [[Philopatry|site-faithful]] if their habitat is sufficiently stable<ref name=":5">{{Citation|title=Tern|date=2020-08-07|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tern&oldid=971698033|work=Wikipedia|language=en|access-date=2020-10-15}}</ref>. Pairs form on the breeding area, shortly after arrival. The pairs build the nest during the last half of May and first half of June, shortly before egg-laying<ref name=":0" />. The typical clutch size is 2 eggs (occasionally 1 or 3)<ref name=":0" />. The nest is a shallow depression usually built on low vegetation such as mosses, lichens, field horsetail, cottongrass, hairgrass or coastal bluegrass<ref name=":0" />. Both parents incubate the eggs and feed the chicks, although the female does more [[Egg incubation|incubating]] and less fishing than her partner<ref name=":5" />. Aleutian Terns are reported to spend less time brooding chicks than do [[Arctic tern|Arctic Terns]]; consequently, Aleutian Tern mortality rate is higher during the chick stage<ref name=":0" />.


The eggs typically have an elongate ovate shape<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|last=Bent|first=Arthur Cleveland|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.61506|title=Life histories of North American gulls and terns : order Longipennes /|date=1921|publisher=Govt. Print. Off.,|location=Washington :}}</ref> and range from 40–46mm length. Their color ranges from a clay/olive green to a honey yellow<ref name=":6" />, they tend to be darker than eggs of other terns. Distinctive large and smaller black spots are irregularly marked over the egg<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Harrison, C. A.|first=|title=A Field Guide to the Nests, Eggs, and Nestlings of North American Birds|publisher=Stephen Greene Press|year=1984a|isbn=|location=Brattleboro, VT, USA|pages=}}</ref>. After a 3-weeks incubation period, the eggs hatch from early June until late July. Several days after hatching, young birds move to taller vegetation before moving with adults to staging areas along coast ([[Precociality|semiprecocial]] juvenils). After 4-5 weeks, the chicks start [[Fledge|fledging]]<ref name=":0" />.
The eggs typically have an elongate ovate shape<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|last=Bent|first=Arthur Cleveland|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.61506|title=Life histories of North American gulls and terns : order Longipennes /|date=1921|publisher=Govt. Print. Off.,|location=Washington :}}</ref> and range from 40–46mm length. Their color ranges from a clay/olive green to a honey yellow<ref name=":6" />, they tend to be darker than eggs of other terns. Distinctive large and smaller black spots are irregularly marked over the egg<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Harrison, C. A.|first=|title=A Field Guide to the Nests, Eggs, and Nestlings of North American Birds|publisher=Stephen Greene Press|year=1984a|isbn=|location=Brattleboro, VT, USA|pages=}}</ref>. After a 3-weeks incubation period, the eggs hatch from early June until late July. Several days after hatching, young birds move to taller vegetation before moving with adults to staging areas along coast ([[Precociality|semiprecocial]] juvenils). After 4-5 weeks, the chicks start [[Fledge|fledging]]<ref name=":0" />.


Aleutian Terns are easily disturbed from nests. As soon as an intrusion is detected, the adults fly off the nest. They are much slower at returning to nests after being disturbed than are [[Arctic tern|Arctic Terns]], taking up to 30 min to return<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Baird, P. A. and R. A. Moe.|first=|date=1978|title=The breeding biology and feeding ecology of marine birds in the Sitkalidak Strait area, Kodiak Island, 1977|url=|journal=Environmental Assessment of the Alaskan Continental Shelf|volume=3|pages=313-524|via=}}</ref>.
Aleutian Terns are easily disturbed from nests. As soon as an intrusion is detected, the adults fly off the nest. They are much slower at returning to nests after being disturbed than are [[Arctic tern|Arctic Terns]], taking up to 30 min to return<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Baird, P. A. and R. A. Moe.|first=|date=1978|title=The breeding biology and feeding ecology of marine birds in the Sitkalidak Strait area, Kodiak Island, 1977|url=|journal=Environmental Assessment of the Alaskan Continental Shelf|volume=3|pages=313-524|via=}}</ref>. It sometimes nests among [[Arctic tern]]s, which, like most white terns, are fiercely defensive of their nest and young and will attack large predators. The Aleutian tern, however, is not aggressive in defense of its nests or young.

=== Diet and Foraging ===
Aleutian Terns primarily feed on small fish, but their diet also includes crustaceans, insects and zooplankton<ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-11-13|title=Aleutian Tern|url=https://www.audubon.org/field-guide/bird/aleutian-tern|access-date=2020-10-15|website=Audubon|language=en}}</ref>. They forage mostly by flying, hovering low over water and swooping down or surface-dipping into the water to take their food from the surface<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Haney, J. C., J. M. Andrew and D. S. Lee.|first=|date=1991a|title=A closer look: Aleutian Tern|url=|journal=Birding|volume=23|pages=346-351|via=}}</ref>. Only contact- and surface-dipping have been observed, even in places where other species have been seen plunge-diving<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":7" />. They usually forage in shallow water, including tidal rips, along rivers, and over inshore marine waters<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gill, Jr.|first=Robert E.|last2=Petersen|first2=Margaret R.|last3=Jorgensen|first3=Paul D.|date=1981-01-01|title=Birds of the Northcentral Alaska Peninsula, 1976-1980|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.14430/arctic2532|journal=ARCTIC|volume=34|issue=4|doi=10.14430/arctic2532|issn=1923-1245}}</ref>. Occasionally adults and fledgling juveniles catch insects by hawking over freshwater ponds<ref name=":0" />.

Aleutian Terns can forage in nearshore marine waters up to 11 km offshore from Seward Peninsula, and up to 50 km offshore from other colonies<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gill|first=Robert E.|last2=Kessel|first2=Brina|date=1992|title=Birds of the Seward Peninsula, Alaska: Their Biogeography, Seasonality, and Natural History|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3536694|journal=Northwestern Naturalist|volume=73|issue=2|pages=63|doi=10.2307/3536694|issn=1051-1733}}</ref>.


=== Social Behaviour ===


==References==
==References==

Revision as of 06:36, 15 October 2020

Aleutian tern

Dickcissel male perched on a metal pole singing, with neck stretched and beak open.

Songs and calls
Listen to the Aleutian tern on xeno-canto
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Charadriiformes
Family: Laridae
Genus: Onychoprion
Species:
O. aleuticus
Binomial name
Onychoprion aleuticus
(Baird, 1869)
Aleutian Tern Distribution
  Breeding
  Non-breeding
Synonyms

Onychoprion aleutica (lapsus)
Sterna aleutica Baird, 1869


Like most other terns, the Aleutian tern feeds by plunge-diving for fish, usually from saline environments. The offering of fish by the male to the female is part of the courtship display.

Taxonomy

The Aleutian tern Onychoprion aleutica (Baird, 1869) is a bird in the family Laridae, a family of seabirds in , a family of seabirds in the order Charadriiformes that includes the gulls, terns and skimmers. The genus name of Onychoprion aleutica  is from Ancient Greek onux, "claw" or "nail", and prion, "saw". The specific aleuticus refers to the Aleutian Islands.

It was formerly named Sterna aleutica[2]. Indeed, in his 1758 Systema Naturae, Linnaeus placed the terns in the genus Sterna. However, a phylogenetic analysis found that the species in the Onychoprion clade, which includes O. aleutica, O. fuscata (the Sooty Tern), and O. anaethetus (the Bridled Tern), are related only distantly to the "typical" terns retained in a much-restricted Sterna (Bridge et al. 2005). Still, in broader terms the genera Onychoprion and Sterna are sisters (Baker et al. 2007). Relationships between various tern species, and between the terns and the other Charadriiformes, were formerly difficult to resolve because of a poor fossil record and the misidentification of some finds.

Description

The Aleutian tern is medium-sized tern (32–39 cm long), with a 75–80 cm wingspan, a short pointed bill and a long, deeply forked tail.[3] It weighs 84–140 g (2.9–5.0 oz).[4]

Plumage

Breeding adult and juvenile are the only plumages likely to be encountered in North America. Breeding adult (definitive alternate plumage) has a white forehead, a black cap, a mid-grey mantle with darkish grey underparts, and white rump and tail. Its underwing is whitish, with dark-tipped primaries and a diagnostic dark bar on the secondaries.[3] The Aleutian Tern has a black bill as well as black legs. There are no significant differences between the male and the female.

The plumage of the non-breeding adult (definitive basic plumage) is poorly known. It is thought to be similar to plumage of breeding adult. It has white underparts, a white speckled crown, and a gray tail with white sides.[5] Whereas the forehead bar disappears in winter, the dark secondary bar remains.[6]

Lee[7] described juveniles with a white collar, extensive white forehead, white underparts, and gray tail with white outer web of outer tail-feather. They usually do not have clear dark bar on their secondaries.

Adult Onychoprion aleuticus in breeding plumage in Nome, Alaska.

Molt strategies are very poorly known in Aleutian Tern but are presumably similar to other medium-sized, northern-breeding, migratory terns such as much better-studied Common Tern.[8] The Aleutian Tern exhibits a Complex Alternate Strategy:[3]

Plumage Period of the Year
Juvenile (First Basic) Jul-Oct
Formative Oct-Mar
First Alternate Mar-Aug
Second Basic Sep-Feb
Second Alternate Sep-Feb
Definitive Basic Sep-Feb
Definitive Alternate Mar-Sep

Voice

The Aleutian tern is associated with different calls reported in the literature. Their call can be distinguished from the Common Tern ones, since it has a higher pitch and is characterized by a soft and rolling whistled tone.

The most distinctive sound is the choppy “chif-chif-chu-ak” described by Olsen and Larsson in 1995,[6] less harsh than the sustained note of the Arctic Tern. Another distinctive sound of the Aleutian tern is a prolonged "whee-hee-hee-hee" stressed on the first syllable.[9] Aleutian Tern also have a call that is similar to call of Red-necked Phalarope (Phalaropus lobatus), which is a short, sharp "chit" [6], possibly uttered during social contact.

The Aleutian Tern is generally silent while incubating.[10]

Distribution and habitat

During breeding season, the colonies gather along Pacific coastlines of Alaska and Russia[11]. More precisely, breeding colonies have been located along the coast of Chukchi Sea (western Alaska), on the Seward Peninsula and Yukon-Kuskokwim River Delta along the Alaska Peninsula, in the Aleutian Island, in the Kodiak Archipelago, on the Kenai Peninsula and Copper River delta, and along the Gulf of Alaska[3]. The current worldwide minimum breeding population has been estimated at approximately 31 000 birds, with most colonies occurring in the Siberian region of Russia (25 602 birds in 89 colonies) and the remaining 18 % occurring in Alaska (5 529 birds in 111 colonies)[12]. However, within the last decade, there have been reports of colony declines and disappearances at individual sites in Alaska.[13]

This species is strongly migratory, and although the wintering range is poorly known, it is believed to lie off Indonesia and Malaysia[14]. Small flocks of the species have been increasingly sighted in coastal areas around Hong Kong in spring and fall, around Singapore and Indonesia between October and April, and in coastal waters of Java, Bali and Sulawesi during December[15]. The regular appearance of Aleutian Terns in fall off Hong Kong suggests one possible route for southbound migrants[15]. The Aleutian Tern stands out from its congeners because it is the only species to show an annual migratory behaviour between a subarctic breeding zone and tropical wintering areas in the South Pacific[16]. Only a very small number of Charadriiformes breeding in Alaska appear to have a connection to East Asia.

Habitat

The Aleutian Tern usually lives in partially vegetated sandy beaches and grassy meadows, mossy boglands and marshes, either on isolated rocky islands or along coasts, often near river mouths. The Aleutian Tern is pelagic when it is not breeding.

Status

Trends in the Aleutian Tern distribution indicates that overall, the species seems to undergo rapid declines over generations. Indeed, the numbers at known colonies in Alaska have declined 8.1% annually since 1960, which corresponds to 92.9% over three generations, with large colonies experiencing greater declines than small colonies[11]. The Aleutian Tern has therefore been listed as a “Vulnerable” species[17]. Precise factors of declines are unclear but likely include habitat modification, predation, egg harvesting and human disturbance[11]. Moreover, wintering area in Southeast Asia could be related to breeding population declines because this region undergoes several ecological stresses from unregulated fishing, coastal development, and pollution[18]. Aleutian Terns are very sensitive to disturbance at colonies and may seasonally or even permanently abandon their colonies in response to human disturbance[3].

Conservation

The Aleutian Tern has been designated as a species of concern by several agencies and NGOs (ADF&G, Audubon Alaska, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, The North American Waterbird Conservation Plan). In 2007, an Aleutian Tern Working Group was organized in Alaska in order to examine the necessity to develop an accurate population estimation method and therefore prioritizing the management of the species and the identification of its migration pathway. In 2010, they began to deploy geolocators on Aleutians Terns from colonies in Alaska.[19] The lack of data on breeding biology and ecological behaviours limits the development of conservation actions for the species. Further research should focus on the monitoring of populations and colonies in Alaska, Russia and South Pacific regions and the understanding of the main causes of the recent decline of the species.

Behaviour

Breeding and Parental Behaviour

Aleutian Terns breed in colonies, and are site-faithful if their habitat is sufficiently stable[20]. Pairs form on the breeding area, shortly after arrival. The pairs build the nest during the last half of May and first half of June, shortly before egg-laying[3]. The typical clutch size is 2 eggs (occasionally 1 or 3)[3]. The nest is a shallow depression usually built on low vegetation such as mosses, lichens, field horsetail, cottongrass, hairgrass or coastal bluegrass[3]. Both parents incubate the eggs and feed the chicks, although the female does more incubating and less fishing than her partner[20]. Aleutian Terns are reported to spend less time brooding chicks than do Arctic Terns; consequently, Aleutian Tern mortality rate is higher during the chick stage[3].

The eggs typically have an elongate ovate shape[21] and range from 40–46mm length. Their color ranges from a clay/olive green to a honey yellow[21], they tend to be darker than eggs of other terns. Distinctive large and smaller black spots are irregularly marked over the egg[21][22]. After a 3-weeks incubation period, the eggs hatch from early June until late July. Several days after hatching, young birds move to taller vegetation before moving with adults to staging areas along coast (semiprecocial juvenils). After 4-5 weeks, the chicks start fledging[3].

Aleutian Terns are easily disturbed from nests. As soon as an intrusion is detected, the adults fly off the nest. They are much slower at returning to nests after being disturbed than are Arctic Terns, taking up to 30 min to return[10][23]. It sometimes nests among Arctic terns, which, like most white terns, are fiercely defensive of their nest and young and will attack large predators. The Aleutian tern, however, is not aggressive in defense of its nests or young.

Diet and Foraging

Aleutian Terns primarily feed on small fish, but their diet also includes crustaceans, insects and zooplankton[24]. They forage mostly by flying, hovering low over water and swooping down or surface-dipping into the water to take their food from the surface[25]. Only contact- and surface-dipping have been observed, even in places where other species have been seen plunge-diving[3][25]. They usually forage in shallow water, including tidal rips, along rivers, and over inshore marine waters[26]. Occasionally adults and fledgling juveniles catch insects by hawking over freshwater ponds[3].

Aleutian Terns can forage in nearshore marine waters up to 11 km offshore from Seward Peninsula, and up to 50 km offshore from other colonies[27].

Social Behaviour

References

  1. ^ IUCN (2017). "Onychoprion aleuticus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2017. Retrieved 18 January 2018. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  2. ^ Bridge, E. S.; Jones, A. W. & Baker, A. J. (2005). A phylogenetic framework for the terns (Sternini) inferred from mtDNA sequences: implications for taxonomy and plumage evolution Archived 2006-07-20 at the Wayback Machine. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 35: 459–469.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l North, Michael R. (2020-03-04), "Aleutian Tern (Onychoprion aleuticus)", Birds of the World, Cornell Lab of Ornithology, retrieved 2020-10-14
  4. ^ Dunning Jr., John B. (2007-12-05). "CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses". doi:10.1201/9781420064452. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  5. ^ "Handbook of the Birds of Europe, the Middle East and North Africa. Volume 3: Waders to GullsStanley Cramp (Chief Editor) Oxford University Press, 1983, £49·50". Oryx. 17 (3): 148–149. July 1983. doi:10.1017/s0030605300029604. ISSN 0030-6053.
  6. ^ a b c Nisbet, Ian C. T.; Olsen, Klaus Malling; Larsson, Hans (1995). "Terns of Europe and North America". Colonial Waterbirds. 18 (2): 235. doi:10.2307/1521490. ISSN 0738-6028.
  7. ^ Lee, David S. (February 1992). "Specimen Records of Aleutian Terns from the Philippines". The Condor. 94 (1): 276–279. doi:10.2307/1368817. ISSN 0010-5422.
  8. ^ Howell, S. N. G (2010). Peterson Reference Guide to Molt in North American Birds. Boston, MA, USA: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Company.
  9. ^ Bent, Arthur Cleveland (1921). Life histories of North American gulls and terns : order Longipennes /. Washington :: Govt. Print. Off.,.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  10. ^ a b Buckley, Francine Geber; Buckley, P. A. (1980). "Do Aleutian Terns Exhibit Extraordinary Anti-Predator Adaptations?". Proceedings of the Colonial Waterbird Group. 3: 99–107. ISSN 1556-5785.
  11. ^ a b c VERNON BYRD, G.; RENNER, HEATHER M.; RENNER, MARTIN (2005-11). "Distribution patterns and population trends of breeding seabirds in the Aleutian Islands". Fisheries Oceanography. 14 (s1): 139–159. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2419.2005.00368.x. ISSN 1054-6006. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  12. ^ Renner, H.M., Romano, M.D., Renner, M., Pyare, S., Goldstei. (2015). "Assessing the breeding distribution and population trends of the Aleutian tern Onychoprion aleuticus". Marine Ornithology. 43: 179–187.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  13. ^ Corcoran, Robin (2012). "Aleutian Tern counts from seabird colony and nearshore marine bird surveys in the Kodiak Archipelago, Alaska 1975–2012". Kodiak, AK: US Fish and Wildlife Service.
  14. ^ Lee, David S. (1992-02). "Specimen Records of Aleutian Terns from the Philippines". The Condor. 94 (1): 276–279. doi:10.2307/1368817. ISSN 0010-5422. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  15. ^ a b Hill N.P. and Bishop K.D (1999). "Possible winter quarters of the Aleutian Tern?". Wilson Bulletin. 111: 559–560.
  16. ^ Winker, Kevin; McCracken, Kevin G.; Gibson, Daniel D.; Pruett, Christin L.; Meier, Rose; Huettmann, Falk; Wege, Michael; Kulikova, Irina V.; Zhuravlev, Yuri N.; Perdue, Michael L.; Spackman, Erica (2007-04). "Movements of Birds and Avian Influenza from Asia into Alaska". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 13 (4): 547–552. doi:10.3201/eid1304.061072. ISSN 1080-6040. PMC 2725966. PMID 17553268. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  17. ^ "Onychoprion aleuticus: BirdLife International". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2017-10-01. Retrieved 2020-10-14.
  18. ^ Goldstein, M.I., Duffy, D.C., Oehlers, S., Catterson, N., Freferick, J. & Pyare, S. (2019). "Interseasonal movements and non-breeding locations of Aleutian Terns Onychoprion aleuticus". Marine Ornithology. 47: 67–76.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  19. ^ Oehlers, S., Catterson, N., Goldstein, M., Pyare, S (2010). "Aleutian Terns: Migration Mystery". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. ^ a b "Tern", Wikipedia, 2020-08-07, retrieved 2020-10-15
  21. ^ a b c Bent, Arthur Cleveland (1921). Life histories of North American gulls and terns : order Longipennes /. Washington :: Govt. Print. Off.,.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  22. ^ Harrison, C. A. (1984a). A Field Guide to the Nests, Eggs, and Nestlings of North American Birds. Brattleboro, VT, USA: Stephen Greene Press.
  23. ^ Baird, P. A. and R. A. Moe. (1978). "The breeding biology and feeding ecology of marine birds in the Sitkalidak Strait area, Kodiak Island, 1977". Environmental Assessment of the Alaskan Continental Shelf. 3: 313–524.
  24. ^ "Aleutian Tern". Audubon. 2014-11-13. Retrieved 2020-10-15.
  25. ^ a b Haney, J. C., J. M. Andrew and D. S. Lee. (1991a). "A closer look: Aleutian Tern". Birding. 23: 346–351.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  26. ^ Gill, Jr., Robert E.; Petersen, Margaret R.; Jorgensen, Paul D. (1981-01-01). "Birds of the Northcentral Alaska Peninsula, 1976-1980". ARCTIC. 34 (4). doi:10.14430/arctic2532. ISSN 1923-1245.
  27. ^ Gill, Robert E.; Kessel, Brina (1992). "Birds of the Seward Peninsula, Alaska: Their Biogeography, Seasonality, and Natural History". Northwestern Naturalist. 73 (2): 63. doi:10.2307/3536694. ISSN 1051-1733.
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