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==Characteristics== |
==Characteristics== |
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Brine pools are sometimes called sea floor "lakes" because the dense brine does not easily mix with overlying seawater creating a distinct interface between water masses. The pools range in |
Brine pools are sometimes called sea floor "lakes" because the dense brine does not easily mix with overlying seawater creating a distinct interface between water masses. The pools range in volume from less than 1 m<sup>2</sup> to as large as the 120 km<sup>2</sup> [[Orca Basin]].<ref name=":1" /> The high salinity raises the density of the brine, which creates a surface and shoreline for the pool. Because of the brine's high density and lack of mixing currents in the deep ocean, brine pools often become [[Anoxic waters|anoxic]] and deadly to respiring organisms.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Arias|first=Francisco J.|last2=Heras|first2=Salvador De Las|date=2019|title=On the feasibility of ocean brine pool power stations|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/er.4708|journal=International Journal of Energy Research|language=en|volume=43|issue=15|pages=9049–9054|doi=10.1002/er.4708|issn=1099-114X}}</ref> Brine pools supporting chemosynthetic activity, however, form life on the pool's shores where bacteria and their symbionts grow near the highest concentrations of nutrient release.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title=Brine Pools: The Underwater Lakes of Despair|url=https://www.amusingplanet.com/2018/11/brine-pools-lakes-under-ocean.html|access-date=2020-09-28|website=www.amusingplanet.com|language=en}}</ref> These shores are complex environments with significant shifts in salinity, oxygen concentration, pH, and temperature over a relatively small vertical scale. These transitions provide a variety of environmental niches.<ref>{{Citation|last=Antunes|first=André|title=Exploring Deep-Sea Brines as Potential Terrestrial Analogues of Oceans in the Icy Moons of the Outer Solar System|date=2020|url=https://doi.org/10.21775/9781912530304.06|work=Astrobiology: Current, Evolving, and Emerging Perspectives|publisher=Caister Academic Press|doi=10.21775/9781912530304.06|isbn=978-1-912530-30-4|access-date=2020-10-28|last2=Olsson-Francis|first2=Karen|last3=McGenity|first3=Terry J.}}</ref> |
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== Formation == |
== Formation == |
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# Brine Rejection |
# Brine Rejection |
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#* When sea water freezes, salts do not fit into the crystalline structure of ice so the salts are expelled. The expelled salts form a cold, dense, brine that sinks below the sea ice to the sea floor. Brine rejection on a oceanic scale is associated with the formation of [[North Atlantic Deep Water|North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW)]] and [[Antarctic bottom water|Antarctic Bottom Water (AAW)]] that play a large role in global thermohaline circulation. On a localized scale, that rejected brine collects in seafloor depressions. In the absence of mixing, the brine will become anoxic in a matter of weeks.<ref name=":0" /> |
#* When sea water freezes, salts do not fit into the crystalline structure of ice so the salts are expelled. The expelled salts form a cold, dense, brine that sinks below the sea ice to the sea floor. Brine rejection on a oceanic scale is associated with the formation of [[North Atlantic Deep Water|North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW)]] and [[Antarctic bottom water|Antarctic Bottom Water (AAW)]] that play a large role in global thermohaline circulation. On a localized scale, that rejected brine collects in seafloor depressions forming a brine pool. In the absence of mixing, the brine will become anoxic in a matter of weeks.<ref name=":0" /> |
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# Salt Tectonics |
# Salt Tectonics |
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#* During the middle [[Jurassic|Jurassic period]], the Gulf of Mexico was a shallow sea that dried out, producing a thick layer of salts and seawater derived minerals up to 8 km thick. When the Gulf refilled with water the salt layer was preserved from dissolution by sediments accumulating over the salt. Subsequent sedimentation layers became so heavy that they began to deform and move the more malleable salt layer below. In some places, the salt layer now protrudes at or near the seafloor where it can interact with seawater. Where seawater comes in contact with the salt the deposits dissolve and form brines. The location of these surfacing Jurassic era salt deposits is also associated with methane releases giving deep ocean brine pools their chemical characteristics.<ref name=":1" /> |
#* During the middle [[Jurassic|Jurassic period]], the Gulf of Mexico was a shallow sea that dried out, producing a thick layer of salts and seawater derived minerals up to 8 km thick. When the Gulf refilled with water the salt layer was preserved from dissolution by sediments accumulating over the salt. Subsequent sedimentation layers became so heavy that they began to deform and move the more malleable salt layer below. In some places, the salt layer now protrudes at or near the seafloor where it can interact with seawater. Where seawater comes in contact with the salt the deposits dissolve and form brines. The location of these surfacing Jurassic era salt deposits is also associated with methane releases giving deep ocean brine pools their chemical characteristics.<ref name=":1" /> |
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==Support of life== |
==Support of life== |
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Due to the methods of their formation and lack of mixing, brine pools are anoxic and deadly to most organisms. When an organism enters a brine pool they attempt to "breathe" the environment and experience [[cerebral hypoxia]] due to the lack of oxygen and [[Toxic shock syndrome|toxic shock]] due to the hyper-salinity. When observed by submarines or [[Remotely operated underwater vehicle|Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROV)]], brine pools are found to be littered with dead fish, crab, amphipods, and other organisms that ventured too far into the brine. Dead organisms are then preserved in the brine for years without decay due again to the anoxic nature of the pool preventing decay and creating a fish "grave yard".<ref name=":3" /> |
Due to the methods of their formation and lack of mixing, brine pools are anoxic and deadly to most organisms. When an organism enters a brine pool they attempt to "breathe" the environment and experience [[cerebral hypoxia]] due to the lack of oxygen and [[Toxic shock syndrome|toxic shock]] due to the hyper-salinity. If organisms cannot escape they eventually die. When observed by submarines or [[Remotely operated underwater vehicle|Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROV)]], brine pools are found to be littered with dead fish, crab, amphipods, and other organisms that ventured too far into the brine. Dead organisms are then preserved in the brine for years without decay due again to the anoxic nature of the pool preventing decay and creating a fish "grave yard".<ref name=":3" /> |
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While organisms can typically flourish on the outskirts of a brine pool, they are not always safe from harm here. One possible reason for this is that [[Submarine landslide|underwater landslides]] can impact brine pools and cause waves of hypersaline brine to spill out into surrounding basins, thus negatively effecting the biological communities which live there<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sawyer|first=Derek E.|last2=Mason|first2=R. Alan|last3=Cook|first3=Ann E.|last4=Portnov|first4=Alexey|date=2019-01-15|title=Submarine Landslides Induce Massive Waves in Subsea Brine Pools|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-36781-7|journal=Scientific Reports|language=en|volume=9|issue=1|pages=128|doi=10.1038/s41598-018-36781-7|issn=2045-2322}}</ref>. |
While organisms can typically flourish on the outskirts of a brine pool, they are not always safe from harm here. One possible reason for this is that [[Submarine landslide|underwater landslides]] can impact brine pools and cause waves of hypersaline brine which can be 100s of meters to spill out into surrounding basins, thus negatively effecting the biological communities which live there<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sawyer|first=Derek E.|last2=Mason|first2=R. Alan|last3=Cook|first3=Ann E.|last4=Portnov|first4=Alexey|date=2019-01-15|title=Submarine Landslides Induce Massive Waves in Subsea Brine Pools|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-36781-7|journal=Scientific Reports|language=en|volume=9|issue=1|pages=128|doi=10.1038/s41598-018-36781-7|issn=2045-2322}}</ref>. |
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Despite their inhospitable nature, deep sea brine pools often coincide with [[cold seep]] activity allowing for [[Chemosynthesis|chemosynthetic]] life to thrive. Methane and hydrogen sulfide released by the seep is processed by [[bacteria]], which have a [[symbiosis|symbiotic]] relationship with seep |
Despite their inhospitable nature, deep sea brine pools often coincide with [[cold seep]] activity allowing for [[Chemosynthesis|chemosynthetic]] life to thrive. Methane and hydrogen sulfide released by the seep is processed by [[bacteria]], which have a [[symbiosis|symbiotic]] relationship with organisms such as seep mussels. The seep muscles create two distinct zones. The inner zone which is at the edge of the pool which provide the best physiological conditions allowing maximum growth. The outer zone is near the transition between the mussel bed and surrounding seafloor which provides the worst conditions causing these mussels to have lower maximum sizes and densities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Smith|first=Emily B.|last2=Scott|first2=Kathleen M.|last3=Nix|first3=Erica R.|last4=Korte|first4=Carol|last5=Fisher|first5=Charles R.|date=2000-09|title=GROWTH AND CONDITION OF SEEP MUSSELS ( BATHYMODIOLUS CHILDRESSI ) AT A GULF OF MEXICO BRINE POOL|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1890/0012-9658(2000)081[2392:GACOSM]2.0.CO;2|journal=Ecology|language=en|volume=81|issue=9|pages=2392–2403|doi=10.1890/0012-9658(2000)081[2392:GACOSM]2.0.CO;2|issn=0012-9658}}</ref> This ecosystem is dependent on [[chemical energy]], and relative to almost all other life on Earth, has no dependence on energy from the [[Sun]].<ref name="wwf">[http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/blue_planet/deep_sea/vents_seeps/ World Wildlife Fund. "Deep sea ecology: hydrothermal vents and cold seeps." March 23, 2006. Accessed October 3, 2007.]</ref> |
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Like the chemosynthetic communities surrounding [[Hydrothermal vent|hydrothermal vents]], brine pool communities offer some of the most compelling evidence yet to suggest extraterrestrial life exists. Chemosynthetic communities offer excellent evidence for extraterrestrial life because they prove that life can exist without light or oxygen: characteristics thought necessary to support life prior to the 1977 discovery of chemosynthetic communities in the deep ocean.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Brine Pools Emerge as a New Place to Search for Life on Mars|url=https://eos.org/articles/brine-pools-emerge-as-a-new-place-to-search-for-life-on-mars|access-date=2020-09-28|website=Eos|language=en-US}}</ref> |
Like the chemosynthetic communities surrounding [[Hydrothermal vent|hydrothermal vents]], brine pool communities offer some of the most compelling evidence yet to suggest extraterrestrial life exists. Chemosynthetic communities offer excellent evidence for extraterrestrial life because they prove that life can exist without light or oxygen: characteristics thought necessary to support life prior to the 1977 discovery of chemosynthetic communities in the deep ocean.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Brine Pools Emerge as a New Place to Search for Life on Mars|url=https://eos.org/articles/brine-pools-emerge-as-a-new-place-to-search-for-life-on-mars|access-date=2020-09-28|website=Eos|language=en-US}}</ref> |
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==Examples== |
==Examples== |
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*Afifi<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Duarte|first=Carlos M.|last2=Røstad|first2=Anders|last3=Michoud|first3=Grégoire|last4=Barozzi|first4=Alan|last5=Merlino|first5=Giuseppe|last6=Delgado-Huertas|first6=Antonio|last7=Hession|first7=Brian C.|last8=Mallon|first8=Francis L.|last9=Afifi|first9=Abdulakader M.|last10=Daffonchio|first10=Daniele|date=2020-01-22|title=Discovery of Afifi, the shallowest and southernmost brine pool reported in the Red Sea|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-57416-w|journal=Scientific Reports|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=910|doi=10.1038/s41598-020-57416-w|issn=2045-2322}}</ref> |
*Afifi<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Duarte|first=Carlos M.|last2=Røstad|first2=Anders|last3=Michoud|first3=Grégoire|last4=Barozzi|first4=Alan|last5=Merlino|first5=Giuseppe|last6=Delgado-Huertas|first6=Antonio|last7=Hession|first7=Brian C.|last8=Mallon|first8=Francis L.|last9=Afifi|first9=Abdulakader M.|last10=Daffonchio|first10=Daniele|date=2020-01-22|title=Discovery of Afifi, the shallowest and southernmost brine pool reported in the Red Sea|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-57416-w|journal=Scientific Reports|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=910|doi=10.1038/s41598-020-57416-w|issn=2045-2322}}</ref> |
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*Atlants II<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Yong|last2=Yang|first2=Jiang Ke|last3=Lee|first3=On On|last4=Li|first4=Tie Gang|last5=Al-Suwailem|first5=Abdulaziz|last6=Danchin|first6=Antoine|last7=Qian|first7=Pei-Yuan|date=2011-12-21|title=Bacterial Niche-Specific Genome Expansion Is Coupled with Highly Frequent Gene Disruptions in Deep-Sea Sediments|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0029149|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=6|issue=12|pages=e29149|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0029149|issn=1932-6203|pmc=PMC3244439|pmid=22216192}}</ref> |
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*Conrad<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2017-06-01|title=Study of Conrad and Shaban deep brines, Red Sea, using bathymetric, parasound and seismic surveys|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2090997717300457|journal=NRIAG Journal of Astronomy and Geophysics|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=90–96|doi=10.1016/j.nrjag.2017.04.003|issn=2090-9977}}</ref> |
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*Discovery<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Siam|first=Rania|last2=Mustafa|first2=Ghada A.|last3=Sharaf|first3=Hazem|last4=Moustafa|first4=Ahmed|last5=Ramadan|first5=Adham R.|last6=Antunes|first6=Andre|last7=Bajic|first7=Vladimir B.|last8=Stingl|first8=Uli|last9=Marsis|first9=Nardine G. R.|last10=Coolen|first10=Marco J. L.|last11=Sogin|first11=Mitchell|date=2012-08-20|title=Unique Prokaryotic Consortia in Geochemically Distinct Sediments from Red Sea Atlantis II and Discovery Deep Brine Pools|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0042872|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=7|issue=8|pages=e42872|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0042872|issn=1932-6203|pmc=PMC3423430|pmid=22916172}}</ref> |
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*Kryos <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yakimov|first=Michail M.|last2=Cono|first2=Violetta La|last3=Spada|first3=Gina L.|last4=Bortoluzzi|first4=Giovanni|last5=Messina|first5=Enzo|last6=Smedile|first6=Francesco|last7=Arcadi|first7=Erika|last8=Borghini|first8=Mireno|last9=Ferrer|first9=Manuel|last10=Schmitt‐Kopplin|first10=Phillippe|last11=Hertkorn|first11=Norbert|date=2015|title=Microbial community of the deep-sea brine Lake Kryos seawater–brine interface is active below the chaotropicity limit of life as revealed by recovery of mRNA|url=https://sfamjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1462-2920.12587|journal=Environmental Microbiology|language=en|volume=17|issue=2|pages=364–382|doi=10.1111/1462-2920.12587|issn=1462-2920}}</ref> |
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*[[L'Atalante basin]] |
*[[L'Atalante basin]] |
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*[[Orca Basin]] |
*[[Orca Basin]] |
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*Shaban<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2017-06-01|title=Study of Conrad and Shaban deep brines, Red Sea, using bathymetric, parasound and seismic surveys|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2090997717300457|journal=NRIAG Journal of Astronomy and Geophysics|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=90–96|doi=10.1016/j.nrjag.2017.04.003|issn=2090-9977}}</ref> |
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==References== |
==References== |
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Revision as of 02:38, 28 October 2020
A brine pool (sometimes called an underwater or deepwater lake) is a volume of brine collected in a seafloor depression. These pools are dense bodies of water that have a salinity three to eight times greater than the surrounding ocean. Brine pools are commonly found below polar sea ice and in the deep ocean. Brine pools below sea ice form through a process called brine rejection.[1] For deep-sea brine pools, salt is necessary to increase the salinity gradient. This salt can come from one of two processes: the dissolution of large salt deposits through salt tectonics[2] or geothermally heated brine issued from tectonic spreading centers.[3] The brine often contains high concentrations of hydrogen sulfide and methane, which provide energy to chemosynthetic animals that live near the pool. These creatures are often extremophiles and symbionts.[4][5] Deep-sea and polar brine pools are toxic to marine animals due to their high salinity and anoxic properties,[1] which can ultimately lead to toxic shock and possibly death.
Characteristics
Brine pools are sometimes called sea floor "lakes" because the dense brine does not easily mix with overlying seawater creating a distinct interface between water masses. The pools range in volume from less than 1 m2 to as large as the 120 km2 Orca Basin.[2] The high salinity raises the density of the brine, which creates a surface and shoreline for the pool. Because of the brine's high density and lack of mixing currents in the deep ocean, brine pools often become anoxic and deadly to respiring organisms.[6] Brine pools supporting chemosynthetic activity, however, form life on the pool's shores where bacteria and their symbionts grow near the highest concentrations of nutrient release.[7] These shores are complex environments with significant shifts in salinity, oxygen concentration, pH, and temperature over a relatively small vertical scale. These transitions provide a variety of environmental niches.[8]
Formation
Brine pools are created through three primary methods: brine rejection below sea ice, dissolution of salts into bottom water through salt-tectonics, and geothermal heating of brine at tectonic boundaries and hot spots.
- Brine Rejection
- When sea water freezes, salts do not fit into the crystalline structure of ice so the salts are expelled. The expelled salts form a cold, dense, brine that sinks below the sea ice to the sea floor. Brine rejection on a oceanic scale is associated with the formation of North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) and Antarctic Bottom Water (AAW) that play a large role in global thermohaline circulation. On a localized scale, that rejected brine collects in seafloor depressions forming a brine pool. In the absence of mixing, the brine will become anoxic in a matter of weeks.[1]
- Salt Tectonics
- During the middle Jurassic period, the Gulf of Mexico was a shallow sea that dried out, producing a thick layer of salts and seawater derived minerals up to 8 km thick. When the Gulf refilled with water the salt layer was preserved from dissolution by sediments accumulating over the salt. Subsequent sedimentation layers became so heavy that they began to deform and move the more malleable salt layer below. In some places, the salt layer now protrudes at or near the seafloor where it can interact with seawater. Where seawater comes in contact with the salt the deposits dissolve and form brines. The location of these surfacing Jurassic era salt deposits is also associated with methane releases giving deep ocean brine pools their chemical characteristics.[2]
- Geothermal Heating
- At earth's oceanic tectonic spreading centers, plates are moving apart allowing new magma to rise and cool creating new sea floor. These mid-ocean ridges allow seawater to seep downward into fractures where they come in contact with and dissolve minerals. In the Red Sea for example, Red Sea Deep Water (RSDW) seeps into the fissures created at the tectonic boundary. The water dissolves salts from deposits created in the Miocene epoch much like the Jurassic period deposits in the Gulf of Mexico. The resulting brine is then superheated in the hydrothermal active zone over the magma chamber. The heated brine rises to the seafloor where it cools and settles in depressions as brine pools. The location of these pools is also associated with methane, hydrogen sulfide, and other chemical releases setting the stage for chemosynthetic activity.[3]
Support of life
Due to the methods of their formation and lack of mixing, brine pools are anoxic and deadly to most organisms. When an organism enters a brine pool they attempt to "breathe" the environment and experience cerebral hypoxia due to the lack of oxygen and toxic shock due to the hyper-salinity. If organisms cannot escape they eventually die. When observed by submarines or Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROV), brine pools are found to be littered with dead fish, crab, amphipods, and other organisms that ventured too far into the brine. Dead organisms are then preserved in the brine for years without decay due again to the anoxic nature of the pool preventing decay and creating a fish "grave yard".[7]
While organisms can typically flourish on the outskirts of a brine pool, they are not always safe from harm here. One possible reason for this is that underwater landslides can impact brine pools and cause waves of hypersaline brine which can be 100s of meters to spill out into surrounding basins, thus negatively effecting the biological communities which live there[9].
Despite their inhospitable nature, deep sea brine pools often coincide with cold seep activity allowing for chemosynthetic life to thrive. Methane and hydrogen sulfide released by the seep is processed by bacteria, which have a symbiotic relationship with organisms such as seep mussels. The seep muscles create two distinct zones. The inner zone which is at the edge of the pool which provide the best physiological conditions allowing maximum growth. The outer zone is near the transition between the mussel bed and surrounding seafloor which provides the worst conditions causing these mussels to have lower maximum sizes and densities.[10] This ecosystem is dependent on chemical energy, and relative to almost all other life on Earth, has no dependence on energy from the Sun.[11]
Like the chemosynthetic communities surrounding hydrothermal vents, brine pool communities offer some of the most compelling evidence yet to suggest extraterrestrial life exists. Chemosynthetic communities offer excellent evidence for extraterrestrial life because they prove that life can exist without light or oxygen: characteristics thought necessary to support life prior to the 1977 discovery of chemosynthetic communities in the deep ocean.[12]
Examples
- Afifi[13]
- Atlants II[14]
- Conrad[15]
- Discovery[16]
- Kryos [17]
- L'Atalante basin
- Orca Basin
- Shaban[18]
References
- ^ a b c Kvitek, Rikk (February 1998). "Black pools of death: Hypoxic, brine-filled ice gouge depressions become lethal traps for benthic organisms in a shallow Arctic embayment". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 162: 1–10. Bibcode:1998MEPS..162....1K. doi:10.3354/meps162001 – via ResearchGate.
- ^ a b c "NOAA Ocean Explorer: Gulf of Mexico 2002". oceanexplorer.noaa.gov. Retrieved 2020-09-28.
- ^ a b Salem, Mohamed (2017-06-01). "Study of Conrad and Shaban deep brines, Red Sea, using bathymetric, parasound and seismic surveys". NRIAG Journal of Astronomy and Geophysics. 6 (1): 90–96. Bibcode:2017JAsGe...6...90S. doi:10.1016/j.nrjag.2017.04.003. S2CID 132353952.
- ^ Extremophile life near brine pools Archived November 10, 2006, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Eder, W; Jahnke, LL; Schmidt, M; Huber, R (July 2001). "Microbial diversity of the brine-seawater interface of the Kebrit Deep, Red Sea, studied via 16S rRNA gene sequences and cultivation methods". Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 67 (7): 3077–85. doi:10.1128/AEM.67.7.3077-3085.2001. PMC 92984. PMID 11425725.
- ^ Arias, Francisco J.; Heras, Salvador De Las (2019). "On the feasibility of ocean brine pool power stations". International Journal of Energy Research. 43 (15): 9049–9054. doi:10.1002/er.4708. ISSN 1099-114X.
- ^ a b "Brine Pools: The Underwater Lakes of Despair". www.amusingplanet.com. Retrieved 2020-09-28.
- ^ Antunes, André; Olsson-Francis, Karen; McGenity, Terry J. (2020), "Exploring Deep-Sea Brines as Potential Terrestrial Analogues of Oceans in the Icy Moons of the Outer Solar System", Astrobiology: Current, Evolving, and Emerging Perspectives, Caister Academic Press, doi:10.21775/9781912530304.06, ISBN 978-1-912530-30-4, retrieved 2020-10-28
- ^ Sawyer, Derek E.; Mason, R. Alan; Cook, Ann E.; Portnov, Alexey (2019-01-15). "Submarine Landslides Induce Massive Waves in Subsea Brine Pools". Scientific Reports. 9 (1): 128. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-36781-7. ISSN 2045-2322.
- ^ Smith, Emily B.; Scott, Kathleen M.; Nix, Erica R.; Korte, Carol; Fisher, Charles R. (2000-09). "GROWTH AND CONDITION OF SEEP MUSSELS ( BATHYMODIOLUS CHILDRESSI ) AT A GULF OF MEXICO BRINE POOL". Ecology. 81 (9): 2392–2403. doi:10.1890/0012-9658(2000)081[2392:GACOSM]2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0012-9658.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ World Wildlife Fund. "Deep sea ecology: hydrothermal vents and cold seeps." March 23, 2006. Accessed October 3, 2007.
- ^ "Brine Pools Emerge as a New Place to Search for Life on Mars". Eos. Retrieved 2020-09-28.
- ^ Duarte, Carlos M.; Røstad, Anders; Michoud, Grégoire; Barozzi, Alan; Merlino, Giuseppe; Delgado-Huertas, Antonio; Hession, Brian C.; Mallon, Francis L.; Afifi, Abdulakader M.; Daffonchio, Daniele (2020-01-22). "Discovery of Afifi, the shallowest and southernmost brine pool reported in the Red Sea". Scientific Reports. 10 (1): 910. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-57416-w. ISSN 2045-2322.
- ^ Wang, Yong; Yang, Jiang Ke; Lee, On On; Li, Tie Gang; Al-Suwailem, Abdulaziz; Danchin, Antoine; Qian, Pei-Yuan (2011-12-21). "Bacterial Niche-Specific Genome Expansion Is Coupled with Highly Frequent Gene Disruptions in Deep-Sea Sediments". PLOS ONE. 6 (12): e29149. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0029149. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3244439. PMID 22216192.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ "Study of Conrad and Shaban deep brines, Red Sea, using bathymetric, parasound and seismic surveys". NRIAG Journal of Astronomy and Geophysics. 6 (1): 90–96. 2017-06-01. doi:10.1016/j.nrjag.2017.04.003. ISSN 2090-9977.
- ^ Siam, Rania; Mustafa, Ghada A.; Sharaf, Hazem; Moustafa, Ahmed; Ramadan, Adham R.; Antunes, Andre; Bajic, Vladimir B.; Stingl, Uli; Marsis, Nardine G. R.; Coolen, Marco J. L.; Sogin, Mitchell (2012-08-20). "Unique Prokaryotic Consortia in Geochemically Distinct Sediments from Red Sea Atlantis II and Discovery Deep Brine Pools". PLOS ONE. 7 (8): e42872. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0042872. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3423430. PMID 22916172.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ Yakimov, Michail M.; Cono, Violetta La; Spada, Gina L.; Bortoluzzi, Giovanni; Messina, Enzo; Smedile, Francesco; Arcadi, Erika; Borghini, Mireno; Ferrer, Manuel; Schmitt‐Kopplin, Phillippe; Hertkorn, Norbert (2015). "Microbial community of the deep-sea brine Lake Kryos seawater–brine interface is active below the chaotropicity limit of life as revealed by recovery of mRNA". Environmental Microbiology. 17 (2): 364–382. doi:10.1111/1462-2920.12587. ISSN 1462-2920.
- ^ "Study of Conrad and Shaban deep brines, Red Sea, using bathymetric, parasound and seismic surveys". NRIAG Journal of Astronomy and Geophysics. 6 (1): 90–96. 2017-06-01. doi:10.1016/j.nrjag.2017.04.003. ISSN 2090-9977.
