User:JMwangi98/sandbox
Exogenous Ketone[edit]
Exogenous ketones are a class of ketone bodies that are ingested through nutritional supplements. This class of ketone bodies refers to the three water-soluble ketones (acetoacetate, ß-hydroxybutyrate [ß-HB], and acetone)[1]. These ketone bodies are produced by interactions between macronutrient availability such as low glucose and high free fatty acids or hormone signaling such as low insulin and high glucagon/cortisol[2]. Under physiological conditions, ketone concentrations can increase due to starvation, ketogenic diets, or prolonged exercise, leading to ketosis[2]. However, with the introduction of exogenous ketone supplements, it is possible to provide a user with an instant supply of ketones even if the body is not within a state of ketosis before ingestion[1].
Most supplements rely on ß-hydroxybutyrate as the source of exogenous ketone bodies. ß-HB is the most common exogenous ketone body because of its efficient energy conversion and ease of synthesis[1]. In the body, ß-HB can be converted to acetoacetic acid. It is this acetoacetic acid that will enter the energy pathway using beta-ketothialase, becoming two Acetyl-CoA molecules[1]. The Acetyl CoA is then able to enter the Krebs cycle in order to generate ATP. The remaining ß-HB molecules that aren't synthesized into acetoacetic acid are then converted to acetone through the acetoacetate decarboxylase waste mechanism[1].
Structure[edit]
Acetoacetate is produced in the mitochondria of liver cells by the addition of an acetyl group from acetyl CoA. This creates 3-hydroxy-3-methylgluteryl CoA which loses an acetyl group, becoming acetoacetate [3].
ß-hydroxybutyrate is also synthesized within liver cells; this is accomplished through the metabolism of fatty acids. Through a series of reactions, acetoacetate is first produced; and it is this acetoacetate that is reduced into ß-hydroxybutyrate, catalyzed by the ß-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase enzyme [4][3]. Although, ß-hydroxybutyrate is technically not a ketone due to the structure of the molecule (OH- attached to carbonyl group makes this an acid), ß-HB acts like a ketone, providing the body with energy in the absence of glucose [1].
Acetone is an organic compound with the formula (CH3)2CO and is one of the simplest and smallest ketones. It is synthesized from the breakdown of acetoacetate in ketotic individuals within the liver [3].
Types[edit]
Ketone Salts[edit]
Ketone salts are natural compounds, such as ß-HB, that are mixed with sodium, potassium, or calcium to improve absorption [1].
Ketone Esters[edit]
Ketone esters are synthetic compounds that link an alcohol group to a ketone body. This ketone body is then metabolized to a ketone within the liver [1].
Effects[edit]
The consumption of ketone bodies results in several effects, ranging from reduced glucose utilization in peripheral tissues, anti-lipolytic effects on adipose tissue, and reduced proteolysis in skeletal muscle [4][5]. In addition to this, ketone bodies serve as signaling molecules that regulate gene expression and adaptive responses [5]. When exogenous ketone bodies are ingested, acute and nutritional ketosis is produced [4][5]. This nutritional ketosis alters the metabolic response to exercise and enhances exercise performance [5].
Blood[edit]
In human blood, ketone ester and ketone salt consumption delivers a >50% higher plasma concentration of D-ß-Hydroxybutyrate, an isoform of regular ß-HB [2]. In terms of efficacy, the blood D-ßHB concentrations are higher when using ketone esters instead of ketone salts (KE = 2.8±0.2 mM; KS = 1.0±mM) [2]. This is due to the fact that the KE supplement contains >99% of the D-ßHB-isoform while the KS supplement contains ~50% of the L-ßHB-isoform, which is metabolized much slower than the D-ßHB-isoform [2]. Also, ketone salt supplements slightly raise the blood pH level. This is mainly due to the conjugate base action of ßHB (ßHB-) which fully dissociates within the blood; this mildly raises the blood and urine pH which is further increased as the kidneys excrete the excess cations (Na+, Ca+, K+)[2]. Ketone esters reduce the blood pH because KE hydrolysis proves ß-HB with butanediol. These two undergoe a hepatic metabolism, forming a keto-acid [2].
Hormones[edit]
Exogenous ketones lower blood glucose concentrations [2][4][6]. Although carbohydrate stores are plentiful, ketones lower the blood glucose because they limit hepatic gluconeogenesis and increase peripheral glucose intake [2]. They have also been known to reduce hunger and the desire to eat. This is shown by the decreased levels of the hunger hormone, ghrelin [6]. In addition, it has been surmised that exogenous ketones may stimulate insulin secretion. Following exposure to exogenous ketones, small amounts of secreted insulin have been reported in animals. However, because insulin has also been shown to increase in subjects who took an exogenous ketone supplement and dextrose drink, in addition to those who only took the exogenous supplement, more research remains to be seen on the effects of ketone supplements on insulin [2].
See Also[edit]
(acetoacetate, ß-hydroxybutyrate [ß-HB], and acetone)
References[edit]
- ^ a b c d e f g h Ketosource. Exogenous ketones: What they are, benefits of use and how they work. Ketosource, ketogenic diets, ketosis & ketones Web site. https://ketosource.co.uk/exogenous-ketones-how-they-work/. Accessed 3/28/, 2018.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Stubbs BJ, Cox PJ, Stirling M, et al. On the metabolism of exogenous ketones in humans. Frontiers in Physiology. 2017;8. https://doaj.org/article/4785bd7e27a6422d91b18f2118b159b5. Accessed Mar 28, 2018. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2017.00848.
- ^ a b c Lubert Stryer (1981). Biochemistry (2nd ed.). p. 393
- ^ a b c d Kesl SL, Poff AM, Ward NP, et al. Effects of exogenous ketone supplementation on blood ketone, glucose, triglyceride, and lipoprotein levels in sprague-dawley rats. Nutrition & metabolism. 2016;13(9):9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26855664. doi: 10.1186/s12986-016-0069-y.
- ^ a b c d Evans M, Cogan KE, Egan B. Metabolism of ketone bodies during exercise and training: Physiological basis for exogenous supplementation. The Journal of Physiology. 2017;595(9):2857-2871. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1113/JP273185/abstract. doi: 10.1113/JP273185.
- ^ a b Stubbs BJ, Cox PJ, Evans RD, Cyranka M, Clarke K, de Wet H. A ketone ester drink lowers human ghrelin and appetite. Obesity. 2018;26(2):269-273. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/oby.22051/abstract. doi: 10.1002/oby.22051.