User:Lisa Marie Oliver/sandbox

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The graph illustrates the decrease in subjective value experienced, as length of time is increased.

Temporal Discounting (or delay discounting) refers to the process where an individual selects an immediate smaller reward in favour of a larger delayed reward.[1] This is suggested to occur due to an individual discounting the value of the reward as time progresses.[2] Therefore a larger reward in the future is discounted in subjective value to where the immediate reward seems more appealing.[2] If an individual selects the larger delayed reward rather than the smaller immediate reward, then they are seen as delaying gratification.[3] Delayed gratification is seen as the reverse of temporal discounting.[3]

Temporal discounting is associated with reduced self-regulatory behaviours, such as reduced self control, impulse control and willpower.[4] Due to this reduction in self-regulatory behaviour, temporal discounting has been implicated as an underlying factor within a range of psychological problems.[5] Research has implicated temporal discounting within substance abuse[6], gambling[7] and obesity[8]. Cognitive processes suggested to underlie the phenomenon are decreased cognitive resources within working memory[9], competing emotional and cognitive networks[10], as well as perception and processing of the rewards.[11] Within neuropsychological research results indicate that age and brain maturation[12], competing emotional and cognitive reasoning areas of the brain[13] and increased levels of dopamine[14] can increase discount behaviour. Other processes suggested to contribute to increased discount behaviour are gender[15], control[16], engagement[17] and schooling.[18] Research within behavioural literature focuses on reducing discount behaviour.[19]

Determinants[edit]

Cognitive Explanations[edit]

Working Memory[edit]

It has been suggested that higher cognitive skills are associated with reduced temporal discounting.[9] One study demonstrated that increasing cognitive load and therefore decreasing cognitive resources, results in increased temporal discounting.[20] Whereas improving working memory and increasing cognitive resources has been shown to result in decreased temporal discounting.[21] Furthermore research indicates that deficits or impairments within working memory may be implicated in increased discount behaviour.[22]

Construal Level Theory[edit]

Construal Level Theory proposes that the variance in an individual's response to immediate and future events is due to temporal discounting and mental representation.[11] The theory suggests that individuals select the immediate option over delayed due to a lack of certainty and clarity in future rewards.[23] This uncertainty is suggested to occur as future rewards appear intangible as attention focuses on more broad abstract details.[23] Whereas immediate rewards appear more vivid and certain, this is attributed to individuals orientating more attention to specific details when processing the information.[23]

Cognitive-Affective Processing System[edit]

The diagram shows a human brain. Areas involved within the Cognitive-Affective Processing system are the hippocampus/fornix (blue) and amygdala (green).

The Cognitive Affective Processing (CAPS) system was a theory proposed to explain why individuals behave differently across situations.[10] The CAPS model has been broken down into two classifications; a cold and hot system.[24] The cold system is suggested to be the cognitive element of processing and is located in the hippocampus.[24] The hot system is suggested to be the emotional element, which is underpinned by the amygdala and partially the mesolimbic dopamine system.[24] An individual is likely to show increased levels of discounting when the hot system is prominent in the decision making process.[24] However always inhibiting the response of the hot system, to delay gratification, can lead to an individual's core needs not being fulfilled.[17] Therefore a balance between the hot and cold systems is seen to be most effective for the individual.[17]

Neurological Explanations[edit]

Neural Systems[edit]

Research has also investigated localisation of systems involved during decision-making.[13] Two systems within the brain appear to be activated when an individual is choosing between immediate and delayed rewards.[25] The first system suggested to be involved is the socio-emotional network and is localised in the limbic and paralimbic areas.[13] The second system is the cognitive control network and is localised in the lateral prefrontal cortices.[13] The socio-emotional network is presumed to play a role in impulsivity, whereas the cognitive control network is involved in future orientation.[13] Research indicates that these two systems compete against each other.[26] When the socio-emotional network is dominant then the individual will be more likely to select immediate rewards.[26] When the cognitive control network is dominant then the individual will be more likely to select the delayed reward.[26]

Brain Maturation[edit]

Rates of temporal discounting have been shown to decrease with maturation.[12] One study demonstrates this with children (mean age 12.1 years) showing more discount behaviour in comparison to college students (mean age 20.3 years) and older adults (mean age 67.9 years).[27] The study showed that older adults showed the least discount behaviour.[27][28] Age differences are suggested to occur due to brain developmental changes during adolescence.[29] This is supported with research indicating that maturation of areas associated with foresight and planning, future orientation, is still occurring during an individual's mid-20's.[30][13]

Neural Mechanisms[edit]

Dopamine has been implicated in reward discounting.[14] The mesolimbic dopamine pathway has been shown to underpin the decision-making process when selecting choice of reward.[31] When the mesolimibic dopamine system is dominant in the decision-making process the individual is more likely to select the immediate reward.[32] However blood glucose has been implicated in the reduction of temporal discounting behaviour.[33] One study demonstrated that consuming a glucose drink instead of a drink with artificial sweeteners, results in individuals being less likely to select immediate rewards and more likely to delay gratification.[34] This is suggested to occur as blood glucose plays a role in self control.[34]

Other Explanations[edit]

Socio-cultural Explanations[edit]

Main article: delayed gratification

Socio-cultural factors have been implicated in the role of temporal discounting.[15][16] Gender has been shown to effect discount behaviour, with females showing higher levels of self control and reduced discount behaviour in comparison to males.[15] Research also indicates that when an individual has self-imposed control, in comparison to external, they are more likely to successfully delay gratification[16] It has been suggested the schooling leads to increased levels of discount behaviour and reduced self control, as it teaches children to expect instant rewards.[18] However research indicates that engaging a participant in a task can aid them in successfully delaying gratification, whereas if the reward is distracting this can cause on increase in discount behaviour.[17]

Behavioural Explanations[edit]

Main article: delayed gratification

Behavioural explanations suggest that reinforcement plays a key role in increased levels of temporal discounting.[35][16] Being able to delay gratification is seen as adaptive ability, which helps individuals with positive social interaction.[36] Due to this research within the behavioural domain and temporal discounting focuses on interventions that encourage delay of gratification.[19]

Methods of Investigation[edit]

Initial Testing[edit]

The diagram shows a question from the Future Orientation Scale.[37]
The diagram shows a computer version of the Temporal Discounting task utilised within ADHD literature.[12]
The diagram shows two questions from the Monetary Choice Questionnaire. The first question represents low impulsivity and the second question represents high impulsivity.[38]
The diagram shows successive questions from the Titration Task. If the individual selects the immediate response on question one, then they must proceed to answer the second question.[39]
Method Description
Marshmallow Experiment The marshmallow experiment was first utilised in the 1960s by Mischel at Stanford University.[40] The experiment involves giving participants the option between one small immediate reward (marshmallow, cookie or pretzel) or two rewards (a 2nd marshmallow, cookie or pretzel) if they can successfully wait for the experimenter to return in approximately 15 minutes.[41] If the participant selects the immediate reward then they are displaying temporal discounting, however if they wait for the second reward then they are showing delayed gratification.
Future Orientation Scale A more recent measure utilised is the future orientation scale.[37] It is broken into 3 sections; time perspective, anticipation of future consequences and planning ahead. Each section has 5 questions. Participants have to respond to 15 pairs (with 2 descriptors in each question); with the answer they believe best describes them. Each question is on a 4-point scale, with each descriptor having the option of selecting really true for me/sort of true for me. The participant selects on a scale from really true for me on the first descriptor to really true for me on the second descriptor. High scores on the test indicate greater future orientation and low levels of temporal discounting. In contrast low scores on the test indicate reduced future orientation and increased discount behaviour.
Computerised Versions Investigations within the area of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and temporal discounting have utilised computerised versions of the task.[12] One particular method depicted planes that are flying at two different heights aiming for a bucket below. The aim of the task is for the participant to gain as many points as possible. The plane further away shows four potential points, whereas the plane closer shows only two potential points. If the participant selects more of the options where they would receive the points immediately they are seen as displaying high levels of temporal discounting.
Monetary Choice Questionnaire The monetary choice questionnaire is a 27 choice self report.[38] The higher the participants average score at the end of the test, the higher levels of temporal discounting they are seen to display. An example question is would you prefer £54 today or £55 in 177 days? If the participant selects the immediate option for this question they are seen as been relatively low on the impulsivity scale, as the delayed option has relatively low value. Therefore this question demonstrates low levels of temporal discounting. Whereas the option between £31 today or £85 in 7 days, indicates relatively high levels of impulsivity. This is because the increase in reward is quite high and the delay quite small. An individual who selects the immediate reward on this question is seen as showing high levels of temporal discounting.
Titration Method The titration method is a variation of the monetary choice questionnaire.[39] The method begins by asking would you rather have £1000 today or in a week. If the participant responds they would rather have the immediate reward, then the questions continue to decrease the value of the immediate reward until they prefer the delayed option. For instance if they prefer the immediate reward then the next question would be would you rather have £990 today or £1000 in a week. The slower an individual changes to the delayed reward option, the higher levels of discount behaviour they are seen to possess. The faster an individual changes to the delayed reward option, the lower levels of discount behaviour they are seen to possess.

Further Assessment[edit]

Method Description
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) fMRI has been used to further localise potential brain regions involved within the decision-making process.[42] Furthermore fMRI allows researchers to understand the systems and pathways involved in discount behaviour.[43] Areas implicated are the mesolimbic dopamine system[14][31][32], the amygdala[10][24] and the hippocampus.[10][24] The mesolimbic pathway and amygdala are associated with high levels of discount behaviour, whereas the hippocampus is associated with delayed gratification.[10][31]

Applications[edit]

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder[edit]

Temporal discounting has been implicated in some psychological disorders, such as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).[44] One study demonstrated that individuals with ADHD tended to show a preference for immediate small rewards over large delayed rewards, in comparison to a control group.[44] A reason proposed for ADHD participants selecting immediate rewards is a deficiency in inhibiting and suppressing their responses.[44] It may also indicate that they value future consequences less than the 'normal' population.[44] Furthermore individuals with ADHD show similar levels of discounting behaviour too young non-ADHD children.[28] Executive functioning has been implicated in ADHD participants discounting behaviour[44] Issues with executive functioning are suggested to influence impulsivity and attention to stimuli.[45]

Gambling[edit]

Gamblers when compared to non-gamblers have been shown to select more immediate rewards than delayed.[46] One study researched the difference in temporal discounting between gamblers with substance abuse and non-gamblers with substance abuse.[47] Results indicated that those who gambled as well as abused drugs displayed higher rates of temporal discounting.[47] It is suggested that this may occur due to the link between self-regulation issues and addictive behaviours.[47]

Eating Disorders[edit]

Anorexia Nervosa has been linked to a decrease in temporal discounting.[48] Individuals with Anorexia Nervosa are seen as having high self-control in relation to food and monetary rewards.[48] In contrast research with overweight participants has indicated that women demonstrate higher levels of temporal discounting than healthy control participants.[8] However these effects are not consistent across gender, with men not differing significantly from their controls.[8]

Substance Abuse[edit]

Substance abuse has been associated with increased levels of temporal discounting.[46] One study demonstrated that temporal discounting plays a role in the development and maintenance of substance abuse.[49] Research with opioid-dependent participants in comparison to non-drug users, indicated that opioid-dependent participants showed significantly more delay discounting behaviour than control participants.[50] Furthermore opioid-users discounted heroin faster than they did when money was the delayed stimulus.[50] Another study indicated that heroin addicts discount at twice the rate of non-drug user controls.[51] Within substance abuse temporal discounting has also been linked to alcohol abuse.[52] Research indicated that alcohol abusers discount alcohol faster than they do when money is the stimuli.[52]

See Also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ Anokhin, Andrey P.; Golosheykin, Simon; Grant, Julia D.; Heath, Andrew C. (2010). "Heritability of Delay Discounting in Adolescence: A Longitudinal Twin Study". Behavior Genetics. 41 (2): 175–183. doi:10.1007/s10519-010-9384-7. PMC 3036802. PMID 20700643.
  2. ^ a b Green, Leonard; Myerson, Joel; McFadden, Edward (1997). "Rate of temporal discounting decreases with amount of reward". Memory & Cognition. 25 (5): 715–723. doi:10.3758/BF03211314. PMID 9337589. S2CID 40668982.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  3. ^ a b Mischel, Walter; Shoda, Yuichi; Rodriguez, Monica L. (1989). "Delay of gratification in children". Science. 244 (4907): 933–938. doi:10.1126/science.2658056. PMID 2658056.
  4. ^ Heatherton, Todd F.; Wagner, Dylan D. (2011). "Cognitive neuroscience of self-regulation failure". Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 15 (3): 132–139. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2010.12.005. PMC 3062191. PMID 21273114.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  5. ^ Hoerger, Michael; Quirk, Stuart W.; Weed, Nathan C. (2011). "Development and validation of the Delaying Gratification Inventory". Psychological Assessment. 23 (3): 725–738. doi:10.1037/a0023286. PMC 3135702. PMID 21480721.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  6. ^ Odum, Amy L.; Madden, Gregory J.; Badger, Gary J.; Bickel, Warren K. (2000). "Needle sharing in opioid-dependent outpatients: psychological processes underlying risk". Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 60 (3): 259–266. doi:10.1016/S0376-8716(00)00111-3. PMID 11053760.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  7. ^ Alessi, S.M; Petry, N.M (2003). "Pathological gambling severity is associated with impulsivity in a delay discounting procedure". Behavioural Processes. 64 (3): 345–354. doi:10.1016/S0376-6357(03)00150-5. PMID 14580703. S2CID 555441.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  8. ^ a b c Weller, Rosalyn E.; Cook, Edwin W.; Avsar, Kathy B.; Cox, James E. (2008). "Obese women show greater delay discounting than healthy-weight women". Appetite. 51 (3): 563–569. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2008.04.010. PMID 18513828. S2CID 24062153.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  9. ^ a b Burks, Stephen V.; Carpenter, Jeffrey P.; Goette, Lorenz; Rustichini, Aldo (2009). "Cognitive skills affect economic preferences, strategic behavior, and job attachment". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 106 (19): 7745–7750. doi:10.1073/pnas.0812360106. PMC 2683075. PMID 19416865.
  10. ^ a b c d e Mischel, W.; Shoda, Y. (1995). "A cognitive-affective system theory of personality: reconceptualizing situations, dispositions, dynamics, and invariance in personality structure". Psychological Review. 102 (2): 246–68. doi:10.1037/0033-295x.102.2.246. PMID 7740090. S2CID 5944664.
  11. ^ a b Trope, Yaacov; Liberman, Nira (2003). "Temporal construal". Psychological Review. 110 (3): 403–421. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.110.3.403. PMID 12885109. S2CID 1283025.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  12. ^ a b c d Scheres, Anouk; Dijkstra, Marianne; Ainslie, Eleanor; Balkan, Jaclyn; Reynolds, Brady; Sonuga-Barke, Edmund; Castellanos, F. Xavier (2006). "Temporal and probabilistic discounting of rewards in children and adolescents: Effects of age and ADHD symptoms". Neuropsychologia. 44 (11): 2092–2103. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2005.10.012. PMID 16303152. S2CID 17746575.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  13. ^ a b c d e f Steinberg, Laurence (2008). "A social neuroscience perspective on adolescent risk-taking". Developmental Review. 28 (1): 78–106. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2007.08.002. PMC 2396566. PMID 18509515.
  14. ^ a b c Gregorios-Pippas, Lucy; Tobler, Philippe N.; Schultz, Wolfram (2009). "Short-Term Temporal Discounting of Reward Value in Human Ventral Striatum". Journal of Neurophysiology. 101 (3): 1507–1523. doi:10.1152/jn.90730.2008. PMC 2666398. PMID 19164109.
  15. ^ a b c Duckworth, Angela Lee; Seligman, Martin E. P. (2006). "Self-discipline gives girls the edge: Gender in self-discipline, grades, and achievement test scores". Journal of Educational Psychology. 98 (1): 198–208. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.98.1.198.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  16. ^ a b c d Miller, Dale T.; Karniol, Rachel (1976). "The role of rewards in externally and self-imposed delay in gratification". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 33 (5): 594–600. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.33.5.594.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) Cite error: The named reference "Miller et al., 1976" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  17. ^ a b c d Peake, Philip K.; Hebl, Michelle; Mischel, Walter (2002). "Strategic attention deployment for delay of gratification in working and waiting situations". Developmental Psychology. 38 (2): 313–326. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.38.2.313. PMID 11881765.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) Cite error: The named reference "Peake et al., 2002" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  18. ^ a b Löckenhoff, Corinna E.; O'Donoghue, Ted; Dunning, David (2011). "Age differences in temporal discounting: The role of dispositional affect and anticipated emotions". Psychology and Aging. 26 (2): 274–284. doi:10.1037/a0023280. PMID 21534688.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  19. ^ a b Austin, Jennifer L.; Bevan, Deborah (2011). "Using Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates to Reduce Children's Requests for Teacher Attention". Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 44 (3): 451–461. doi:10.1901/jaba.2011.44-451. PMC 3177329. PMID 21941378.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  20. ^ Vohs, Kathleen D.; Faber, Ronald J. (2007). "Spent Resources: Self‐Regulatory Resource Availability Affects Impulse Buying". Journal of Consumer Research. 33 (4): 537–547. doi:10.1086/510228.
  21. ^ Bickel, Warren K.; Yi, Richard; Landes, Reid D.; Hill, Paul F.; Baxter, Carole (2011). "Remember the Future: Working Memory Training Decreases Delay Discounting Among Stimulant Addicts". Biological Psychiatry. 69 (3): 260–265. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.08.017. PMC 3015021. PMID 20965498.
  22. ^ Hinson, John M.; Jameson, Tina L.; Whitney, Paul (2003). "Impulsive decision making and working memory". Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 29 (2): 298–306. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.29.2.298. PMID 12696817.
  23. ^ a b c Kim, Hyunji; Schnall, Simone; White, Mathew P. (2013). "Similar Psychological Distance Reduces Temporal Discounting". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 39 (8): 1005–1016. doi:10.1177/0146167213488214. PMID 23653066. S2CID 1650689.
  24. ^ a b c d e f Metcalfe, Janet; Mischel, Walter (1999). "A hot/cool-system analysis of delay of gratification: Dynamics of willpower". Psychological Review. 106 (1): 3–19. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.106.1.3. PMID 10197361. S2CID 9682368.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  25. ^ McClure, SM (2004). "Separate neural systems value immediate and delayed monetary rewards". Science (New York, N.Y.). 306 (5695): 503–7. doi:10.1126/science.1100907. PMID 15486304. S2CID 14663380. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  26. ^ a b c Somerville, Leah H.; Jones, Rebecca M.; Casey, B.J. (2010). "A time of change: Behavioral and neural correlates of adolescent sensitivity to appetitive and aversive environmental cues". Brain and Cognition. 72 (1): 124–133. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2009.07.003. PMC 2814936. PMID 19695759.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  27. ^ a b Green, Leonard; Fry, Astrid F.; Myerson, Joel (1994). "Discounting of Delayed Rewards: A Life-Span Comparison". Psychological Science. 5 (1): 33–36. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1994.tb00610.x. S2CID 53540815.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  28. ^ a b Green, Leonard; Myerson, Joel; Lichtman, David; Rosen, Suzanne; Fry, Astrid (1996). "Temporal discounting in choice between delayed rewards: The role of age and income". Psychology and Aging. 11 (1): 79–84. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.11.1.79. PMID 8726373.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  29. ^ Casey, BJ (2008). "The adolescent brain". Developmental Review : DR. 28 (1): 62–77. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2007.08.003. PMC 2500212. PMID 18688292. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  30. ^ Casey, B.; Tottenham, N.; Liston, C.; Durston, S. (2005). "Imaging the developing brain: what have we learned about cognitive development?". Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 9 (3): 104–110. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2005.01.011. PMID 15737818. S2CID 6331990.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  31. ^ a b c Hirsh, Jacob B.; Guindon, Alex; Morisano, Dominique; Peterson, Jordan B. (2010). "Positive mood effects on delay discounting". Emotion. 10 (5): 717–721. doi:10.1037/a0019466. PMID 21038955. S2CID 40162422.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  32. ^ a b Hyman, S. E.; Malenka, R. C. (2001). "Addiction and the brain: the neurobiology of compulsion and its persistence". Nature Reviews. Neuroscience. 2 (10): 695–703. doi:10.1038/35094560. PMID 11584307. S2CID 3333114.
  33. ^ Wang, X.T. (2010). "Sweet Future: Fluctuating Blood Glucose Levels Affect Future Discounting". Psychological Science. 21 (2): 183–188. doi:10.1177/0956797609358096. PMID 20424042. S2CID 9853493. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  34. ^ a b Gailliot, Matthew T.; Baumeister, Roy F.; Dewall, C. Nathan; Maner, Jon K.; Plant, E. Ashby; Tice, Dianne M.; Brewer, Lauren E.; Schmeichel, Brandon J. (2007). "Self-control relies on glucose as a limited energy source: Willpower is more than a metaphor". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 92 (2): 325–336. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.2.325. PMID 17279852. S2CID 7496171.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  35. ^ Solnick, Jay V.; Kannenberg, Catherine H.; Eckerman, David A.; Waller, Marcus B. (1980). "An experimental analysis of impulsivity and impulse control in humans". Learning and Motivation. 11 (1): 61–77. doi:10.1016/0023-9690(80)90021-1.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  36. ^ Stromer, Robert; McComas, Jennifer J.; Rehfeldt, Ruth Anne (2000). "Designing interventions that include delayed reinforcement: implications of recent laboratory research". Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 33 (3): 359–371. doi:10.1901/jaba.2000.33-359. PMID 11051582. S2CID 32390558.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  37. ^ a b Steinberg, Laurence; Graham, Sandra; o'Brien, Lia; Woolard, Jennifer; Cauffman, Elizabeth; Banich, Marie (2009). "Age Differences in Future Orientation and Delay Discounting". Child Development. 80 (1): 28–44. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01244.x. PMID 19236391.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  38. ^ a b Kirby, Kris N.; Petry, Nancy M.; Bickel, Warren K. (1999). "Heroin addicts have higher discount rates for delayed rewards than non-drug-using controls". Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 128 (1): 78–87. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.128.1.78. PMID 10100392.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  39. ^ a b Raineri, Andres; Rachlin, Howard (1993). "The effect of temporal constraints on the value of money and other commodities". Journal of Behavioral Decision Making. 6 (2): 77–94. doi:10.1002/bdm.3960060202.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  40. ^ Mischel, Walter; Baker, Nancy (1975). "Cognitive appraisals and transformations in delay behavior". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 31 (2): 254–261. doi:10.1037/h0076272.
  41. ^ Mischel, Walter; Ebbesen, Ebbe B.; Raskoff Zeiss, Antonette (1972). "Cognitive and attentional mechanisms in delay of gratification". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 21 (2): 204–218. doi:10.1037/h0032198. PMID 5010404.
  42. ^ Bickel, Warren K.; Miller, Michelle L.; Yi, Richard; Kowal, Benjamin P.; Lindquist, Diana M.; Pitcock, Jeffery A. (2007). "Behavioral and neuroeconomics of drug addiction: Competing neural systems and temporal discounting processes". Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 90: S85–S91. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.09.016. PMC 2033431. PMID 17101239.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  43. ^ Wittmann, M (2007). "Time and decision making: differential contribution of the posterior insular cortex and the striatum during a delay discounting task". Experimental Brain Research. Experimentelle Hirnforschung. Experimentation Cerebrale. 179 (4): 643–53. doi:10.1007/s00221-006-0822-y. PMID 17216152. S2CID 14970405. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  44. ^ a b c d e Barkley, Russell A.; Edwards, Gwenyth; Laneri, Margaret; Fletcher, Kenneth; Metevia, Lori (2001). "Executive Functioning, Temporal Discounting, and Sense of Time in Adolescents with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD)". Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. 29 (6): 541–556. doi:10.1023/A:1012233310098. PMID 11761287. S2CID 8438595.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  45. ^ Barkley, Russell A. (1997). "Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: Constructing a unifying theory of ADHD". Psychological Bulletin. 121 (1): 65–94. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.121.1.65. PMID 9000892.
  46. ^ a b Petry, Nancy M. (2001). "Pathological gamblers, with and without substance abuse disorders, discount delayed rewards at high rates". Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 110 (3): 482–487. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.110.3.482. PMID 11502091.
  47. ^ a b c Petry, Nancy M.; Casarella, Thomas (1999). "Excessive discounting of delayed rewards in substance abusers with gambling problems". Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 56 (1): 25–32. doi:10.1016/S0376-8716(99)00010-1. PMID 10462089.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  48. ^ a b Steinglass, Joanna E.; Figner, Bernd; Berkowitz, Staci; Simpson, H. Blair; Weber, Elke U.; Walsh, B. Timothy (2012). "Increased Capacity to Delay Reward in Anorexia Nervosa". Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society. 18 (4): 773–780. doi:10.1017/S1355617712000446. PMC 3638253. PMID 22591835.
  49. ^ Bickel, Warren K.; Miller, Michelle L.; Yi, Richard; Kowal, Benjamin P.; Lindquist, Diana M.; Pitcock, Jeffery A. (2007). "Behavioral and neuroeconomics of drug addiction: Competing neural systems and temporal discounting processes". Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 90: S85–S91. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.09.016. PMC 2033431. PMID 17101239.
  50. ^ a b Madden, GJ (1997). "Impulsive and self-control choices in opioid-dependent patients and non-drug-using control participants: drug and monetary rewards". Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology. 5 (3): 256–62. doi:10.1037/1064-1297.5.3.256. PMID 9260073. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  51. ^ Kirby, Kris N.; Petry, Nancy M.; Bickel, Warren K. (1999). "Heroin addicts have higher discount rates for delayed rewards than non-drug-using controls". Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 128 (1): 78–87. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.128.1.78. PMID 10100392.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  52. ^ a b Petry, Nancy M. (2001). "Delay discounting of money and alcohol in actively using alcoholics, currently abstinent alcoholics, and controls". Psychopharmacology. 154 (3): 243–250. doi:10.1007/s002130000638. PMID 11351931. S2CID 21143275.

External Links[edit]

Monetary Choice Questionnaire

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Lisa_Marie_Oliver/sandbox&oldid=1168296921"