Yakub Beg of Yettishar

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Yaqub Beg
Muhammad Yaqub Beg, from the 1898 book by N.Veselovsky
Born1820
Pskent, Khanate of Kokand
Died(1877-05-30)May 30, 1877
OccupationAmir of Kashgaria

Muhammad Yaqub Bek (Persian: یعقوب بیگ) was a Tajik[1] adventurer who became head of the kingdom of Kashgaria.

Spelling variants

In English-language literature, the name of Yaqub Beg has also been spelt as Yakub Beg (Encyclopædia Britannica), Yakoob Beg (Boulger, 1878), or Ya`qūb Beg (Kim Hodong, 2004). Authors using Russian sources have also used the spelling Yakub-bek (Paine, 1996[2]). A few publications in English written by Chinese authors spell his name Agubo, which is the Pinyin transcription of the Chinese transcription of his name, 阿古柏.

The first name, Muhammad, is subject to the usual variations in spelling as well.

Biography

Yakub Beg was born in the town of Pskent, in the Khanate of Kokand (now Piskent in the Tashkent Province of Uzbekistan). He rose rapidly through the ranks in the service of the Khanate of Kokand; by the year 1847 he was commander of the fort at Ak-Mechet until a few months before its fall to the Russian army under the command of General Vasily Alekseevich Perovsky in 1853. After the fall of the fort he fled to Bukhara.[3]

Yakub Beg

By 1865 Yakub Beg had become the commander-in-chief of the army of Kokand. Taking advantage of the Hui uprising in China's Xinjiang province, he captured Kashgar and Yarkand from the Chinese and gradually took control of most of the region, including Aksu, Kucha, and other cities in 1867.[4] He made himself the ruler of Kashgaria with its capital in Kashgar. At about this time he received the title of Atalik Ghazi ("Champion Father"),[5] by which he is sometimes known.

He then deposed his former master, the Naqshbandi shaykh Buzurg Khan (Busurg Khan) (the only survived son of Jahangir Khoja) of the White Mountain, in 1867, and declared that he was the Amir.[6] For the first few years, he was a vassal of the Khan of Kokand, but eventually declared independence.[4]

Yakub Beg ruled at the height of The Great Game era when the British, Russian, and Chinese empires were all vying for Central Asia. Kashgaria extended from the capital Kashgar in south-western Xinjiang to Urumqi, Turpan, and Hami in central and eastern Xinjiang more than a thousand kilometers to the north-east, including a majority of what was known at the time as East Turkestan.

Yaqub Beg's Uyghur forces declared a Jihad against Chinese Muslims (Dungans) under T'o Ming (Tuo Ming a.k.a. Daud Khalifa) during the Dungan revolt. Islamic jurists under Yaqub Beg mistakenly thought that the Chinese Muslims were Shafi'i, and being Hanafi themselves, they decided should wage war against Chinese Muslims. Yaqub Beg enlisted non Muslim Han Chinese militia under Hsu Hsuehkung in order to fight against the Chinese Muslims. T'o Ming's forces were defeated by Yaqub, who planned to conquer Dzungharia. Yaqub intended to seize all Dungan territory.[7][8][9]

Poems were written about the victories of Yaqub Beg's forces over the Chinese and the Tungans (Chinese Muslims).[10]

Yakub Beg seized Aksu from Chinese Muslim forces and forced them north of the Tien Shan mountains, committing massacres upon the Chinese Muslims (tunganis).[11]

Yaqub Beg gave himself the title "Athalik Ghazi, Champion Father of the Faithful", and was known for his crushing of both non Muslim and Muslim Chinese alike.[12]

Yaqub entered into relations and signed treaties with the Russian Empire and Great Britain, but when he tried to get their support against China, he failed.[13]

Eventually, Qing forces, including Chinese Muslims led by General Cui and General Hua, who spearheaded the attack on Yaqub Beg's forces in Xinjiang, defeated Yaqub Beg and destroyed his army.[14]

Yakub Beg was disliked by his Turkic Muslim subjects, burdening them with heavy taxes and subjecting them to a harsh version of Islamic law.[15][16]

The death of Yakub Beg

His manner of death is unclear. The Times of London and the Russian Turkestan Gazette both reported that he had died after a short illness.[17] The contemporaneous historian Musa Sayrami (1836–1917) states that he was poisoned on May 30, 1877 in Korla by the former hakim (local city ruler) of Yarkand, Niyaz Hakim Beg, after the latter concluded a conspiracy agreement with the Qing (Chinese) forces in Jungaria.[17] however, Niyaz Beg himself, in a letter to the Qing authorities, denied his involvement in the death of Yakub Beg, and claimed that the Kashgarian ruler committed suicide.[17] Some say (probably, without any basis in fact) that he was killed in battle with the Chinese [18]

While the contemporaneous Muslim writers usually explained Yakub Beg's death by poisoning, and the suicide theory was apparently the accepted truth among the Qing generals of the time, modern historians, according to Kim Hodong, think that the natural death (of a stroke) is the most plausible explanation.[17][19] Contemporaneous western sources say the Chinese got rid of him by poisoning him or some other sort of subversive act.).[20] Westerners also say he was assassinated.[21]

The exact date of Yakub Beg's death is also somewhat uncertain. Although Sayrami claimed that he died on April 28, 1877, modern historians think that this is impossible, as Przewalski met him, quite alive, on May 9. The Chinese sources usually gave May 22 as the date of his death, while Kuropatkin thought it to be May 29. In any event, late May, 1877 is thought to be the most likely time period.[17]

Yaqub Beg and his son Ishana Beg's corpses were "burned to cinders", on display, this angered the population in Kashgar, but Chinese troops quashed a rebellious plot by Hakim Khan to rebel.[22] Four of his sons and two grandsons were captured by the Chinese, one son was beheaded, one grandson died, and the rest were castrated and enslaved to soldiers.[23] Surviving members of Yaqub Beg's family included his 4 sons, 4 grandchildren (2 grandsons and 2 granddaughters), and 4 wives. They either died in prison in Lanzhou, Gansu, or were killed by the Chinese. His sons Yima Kuli, K'ati Kuli, Maiti Kuli, and grandson Aisan Ahung were the only survivors in 1879. They were all underage children, and put on trial, sentenced to an agonizing death if they were complicit in their father's rebellious "sedition", or if they were innocent of their father's crimes, were to be sentenced to castration and serving as a eunuch slave to Chinese troops, when they reached 11 years old.[24][25][26] In 1879, it was confirmed that the sentence of castration was carried out, Yaqub Beg's son and grandsons were castrated by the Chinese court in 1879 and turned into eunuchs to work in the Imperial Palace.[27][28]

Legacy

Night interview with Yakub Beg, King of Kashgaria, 1868

After his death his state of Kashgaria rapidly fell apart, and Kashgar was reconquered by the Qing Dynasty and later inherited by the Republic of China.

One source says that his tomb was at Kashgar but was razed by the Chinese in 1878.[29]

Footnotes

  •  This article incorporates text from A Chinese biographical dictionary, Volume 2, by Herbert Allen Giles, a publication from 1898, now in the public domain in the United States.
  •  This article incorporates text from China revolutionized, by John Stuart Thomson, a publication from 1913, now in the public domain in the United States.
  •  This article incorporates text from Appletons' annual cyclopaedia and register of important events, Volume 4, a publication from 1880, now in the public domain in the United States.
  •  This article incorporates text from Translations of the Peking Gazette, by 1880, a publication from [year missing], now in the public domain in the United States.
  •  This article incorporates text from The American annual cyclopedia and register of important events of the year ..., Volume 4, a publication from 1888, now in the public domain in the United States.
  •  This article incorporates text from Appletons' annual cyclopedia and register of important events: Embracing political, military, and ecclesiastical affairs; public documents; biography, statistics, commerce, finance, literature, science, agriculture, and mechanical industry, Volume 19, a publication from 1886, now in the public domain in the United States.
  •  This article incorporates text from Johnson's new general cyclopaedia and copperplate hand-atlas of the world: combined and illustrated: being specially adapted for daily use in the family, school, and office, Volume 2, by Frederick Augustus Porter Barnard, a publication from 1885, now in the public domain in the United States.
  •  This article incorporates text from Accounts and papers of the House of Commons, by Great Britain. Parliament. House of Commons, a publication from 1871, now in the public domain in the United States.
  •  This article incorporates text from A Chinese biographical dictionary, Volume 2, a publication from 1898, now in the public domain in the United States.
  1. ^ Yakub Beg, in Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009
  2. ^ "Imperial Rivals: China, Russia, and Their Disputed Frontier", by Sarah C. M. Paine (1996) ISBN 1-56324-723-2
  3. ^ Soucek, Svat, A History of Inner Asia, (Cambridge University Press:2000), p. 265.
  4. ^ a b Shaw, Robert. Visits to High Tartary, Yarkand and Kashgar. John Murray, London. (1871). Reprint with new introduction (1984): Oxford University Press, pp. 53-56. ISBN 0-19-583830-0.
  5. ^ "Atalik". Encyclopaedia of Islam: Supplement. Vol. 12. 1980. p. 98. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
  6. ^ Frederick Augustus Porter Barnard (1885). Johnson's new general cyclopaedia and copperplate hand-atlas of the world: combined and illustrated: being specially adapted for daily use in the family, school, and office, Volume 2. NEW YORK: A. J. Johnson. p. 1397. Retrieved 2011-05-08.(Original from the New York Public Library)
  7. ^ John King Fairbank, Kwang-ching Liu, Denis Crispin Twitchett (1980). Late Ch'ing, 1800-1911. Cambridge University Press. p. 223. ISBN 0-521-22029-7. Retrieved 2010-06-28.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  8. ^ John King Fairbank, Kwang-ching Liu, Denis Crispin Twitchett (1980). Late Ch'ing. Cambridge University Press. p. 224. ISBN 0-521-22029-7. Retrieved 2010-06-28.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  9. ^ Cyril E. Black, Louis Dupree, Elizabeth Endicott-West, Eden Naby (1991). The Modernization of Inner Asia. M.E. Sharpe. p. 45. ISBN 0-87332-779-9. Retrieved 2010-11-28.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. ^ Ildikó Bellér-Hann (2008). Community matters in Xinjiang, 1880-1949: towards a historical anthropology of the Uyghur. BRILL. p. 74. ISBN 90-04-16675-0. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  11. ^ Great Britain. Parliament. House of Commons (1871). Accounts and papers of the House of Commons. Ordered to be printed. p. 34. Retrieved 2010-12-28.(Original from Oxford University)
  12. ^ The Spectator, Volume 51. LONDON : JOHN CAMPBELL, 1 WELLINGTON STREET, STRAND. 1878. p. 1607. Retrieved 2012-01-18. Yakoob Beg, calling all true Mussulmans to his standard, and avowing himself then, as always, Athalik Ghazi, Champion Father of the Faithful, defeated the remnants of the Buddhist Chinese ; crushed the Mahommedan Chinese{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link) CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  13. ^ Herbert Allen Giles (1898). A Chinese biographical dictionary, Volume 2. London: B. Quaritch. p. 894. Retrieved 2011-07-13.(STANFORD UNIVERSITY LIBRARY)
  14. ^ Garnaut, Anthony. "From Yunnan to Xinjiang:Governor Yang Zengxin and his Dungan Generals" (PDF). Pacific and Asian History, Australian National University). Retrieved 2010-07-14.
  15. ^ Wolfram Eberhard (1966). A history of China. Plain Label Books. p. 449. ISBN 1-60303-420-X. Retrieved 2010-11-30.
  16. ^ Linda Benson, Ingvar Svanberg (1998). China's last Nomads: the history and culture of China's Kazaks. M.E. Sharpe. p. 19. ISBN 1-56324-782-8. Retrieved 2010-11-30.
  17. ^ a b c d e Kim (2004), pp. 167-169
  18. ^ "Central and North Asia, 1800-1900 A.D." metmuseum.org. 2006. Retrieved December 14, 2006.
  19. ^ The stroke (Russian: удар) version e.g. here: N. Veselovsky (Н. Веселовский), Badaulet Yaqun Beg, Ataliq of Kashgar (Бадаулет Якуб-бек, Аталык Кашгарский), in «Записки Восточного отделения Русского археологического общества», No. 11 (1899).
  20. ^ George Curzon Curzon (2010). Problems of the Far East - Japan-Korea-China. READ BOOKS. p. 328. ISBN 1-4460-2557-8. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  21. ^ John Stuart Thomson (1913). China revolutionized. INDIANAPOLIS: The Bobbs-Merrill company. p. 310. Retrieved 2010-06-28. American Commissioner Cushing, Daniel Webster's son Fletcher, etc., arrive at Canton 1844 Manchu yellow instead of Chinese blue adopted as official color 1855 Famous Empress Dowager Tse Hsi and Viceroy Li Hung Chang arise to power 1856 Non-fulfilment of Nanking treaty with Britain causes war again 1856 Coolie slave trade for Peru, Cuba, California, etc., opens at Macao 1860 Britain and France war with China 1860 Taiping rebellion, beginning at Canton, sweeps to Nanking; opposed by the American, Ward; Chinese Gordon, etc., on behalf of Manchus.... 1863 Yung Wing brings first Chinese students to America (Hartford) 1872 Terrific Mohammedan rebellion in Shensi, Kansu, Yunnan provinces and Turkestan, suppressed by ferocious General Tso Tsung-tang, Mohammedan leader, Yakub Beg, being assassinated in Turkestan May, 1877 Sir Robert Hart establishes Chinese national customs, first guarantee for foreign loans 1886 China-Japan war over Korea; Formosa lost; indemnity also paid 1894 Emperor Kwang Hsu's reform edicts, influenced by Kang Yu Wei 1898 Siege of Peking by allies 1900 Russia-Japan war over Manchuria 1904 America, Britain and China at Shanghai agree to end opium curse I9°9 Death of Emperor Kwang Hsu and Empress Dowager Tse Hsi together 1909 {{cite book}}: line feed character in |quote= at position 48 (help)
  22. ^ {{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1NwbAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA145&dq=turkistan+hands+of+china+prisoners+sons+grandsons+granddaughters+four+wives+yakoob+beg#v=onepage&q=turkistan%20hands%20of%20china%20prisoners%20sons%20grandsons%20granddaughters%20four%20wives%20yakoob%20beg&f=false%7Cquote=their rights, and whenever a Chinese army should be sent of sufficient strength to maintain order in the province, the Czar would order its restoration to China. During the time that has since passed the province recovered somewhat under Russian rule from the depression into which it had sunk during the Mohammedan rebellion. Very little was heard of the Chinese in this region until the close of 1876. With the campaigns against the Tungani and against Yakoob Beg, they began to reassert their claims to their territory in Central Asia; and after the overthrow of Yakoob Beg's power they claimed the fulfillment of the Czar's promise. But, in spite of the diplomatic representations at St. Petersburg, and the menacing attitude of Tso-Tsung-Tang and his army at Manas and Aksu, the Russian authorities, both at home and in Asia, for eighteen months refitted to give the Chinese any satisfaction. A Russian commission was finally appointed to draw up a treaty, and in September it presented its report, containing the draft of a treaty, of which the following are the most important points: First, Russian merchants will be admitted to all the interior markets of China. Secondly, China will pay Russia 5,000,000 rabies. Thirdly, Russia is to receive part of tbs steppe in the upper regions of the Irtish River beyond the Zaisan Sea. The proposed frontier will begin from the fortress of Saur and be continued past the Bostal and Kanas Seas. On the other side of Kulja the frontier il drawn from a point a little more to the southeast of Kanas to the town of Usuntau, from which it runs eastward to the point where the old frontier is cot by the new one. Thus the Takes River Valley is to remain Russian territojy—that is to say, about a fifth part of Kulja. Tats valley was once a Chinese possession, and was surrendered by treaty to Russia twenty years ago. The possession of this strip of territory will enable Russia to exert a very material influence upon the progress of events both in Kulja and in Eastern Turkistan. She will continue to hold in her hand the means of reoccupying the province if such a course should in future become necessary. The clauses relating to commerce will undoubtedly place in her grasp much of the trade of Western China; and if the Chinese should place restrictions in the way of Russian merchants, an excuse would he available to revert to the present condition of things. In spite of these disadvantages the treaty was accepted by the Chinese. In May, Hakim Khan Tufi, the pretender to the Ea»hgar throne, quitted his exile on Russian territory, and, entering Kashgar with a large number of followers through the Pamir, endeavored to raise a rebellion against the ChiM*c. This step was taken by Hakim Khan in order to profit by the angry excitement then reigning among the Mussulmans of Kashgar ia account of the burning of the remains of Yakoob Beg, their late ruler, by order of the Uitnese. In consequence of the rebellious at TOL. XII.—10 A titude of the Mussulmans of Kashgar, and their openly expressed regrets at the loss of their beloved Yakoob Beg, the Chinese authorities ordered the bodies of Yakoob Beg and of his son, Ishana Beg, to be disinterred and publicly burned to cinders. The ashes of Yakoob were, moreover, sent to Peking; Such a proceeding only served to give new force to the existing discontent, and a conspiracy among the Mohammedans was the result. Hakim Khan endeavored to take advantage of this conspiracy, but the Chinese troops put a speedy end to the troubles. At the time that Eastern Turkistan again passed into tho hands of China, there were taken prisoners four sons, two grandsons, two granddaughters, and four wives of Yakoob Beg. Some of these were executed and others died; but in 1879 there remained in prison at Lanchanfoo, the capital of Kan-suh, Maiti Kuli, aged fourteen; Yima Kuli, aged ten; K'ati Kuli, aged six, sons of Yakoob Beg; and Aisan Ahung, agod five, his grandson. These wretched little boys were treated like state criminals. They arrived in Kan-suh in February, 1879, and were sent on to the provincial capital to be tried and sentenced by the Judicial Commissioner there for the awful crime of being sons of their father. In the course of time the Commissioner made a report of the trial, which he concluded as follows: In cases of sedition, where the law condemns the malefactors to death by the slow and painlul process, the children and grandchildren, if it be shown that they were not privy to the treasonable designs of their parents, shall he delivered, no matter whether they have attained full age or not, into the hands of the imperial household to be made eunuchs of, and shall be forwarded to Turkistan and given over as slaves to the soldiery. If under the age of ten, they shall be confined in prison until they shall have reached the age of eleven, whereupon they shall be handed to the imperial household to be dealt with according to law. In the present case, Yakoob Beg's sons Maiti Kuli, Yima Kuli, and K'ati Kuli, and the rebel chief Beg Kuli's son, Aisan Ahung, are all under age, and were not, it has been proved, privy to the treasonable designs of their parents. They have, therefore, to be handed to the imperial household to be dealt with in accordance with the law, which prescribes that, in cases of sedition, the sons and grandsons of malefactors condemned to death by the slow and painful process, if it be shown that they were not privy to the treasonable designs of their parents, shall, whether they have attained full age or not, be delivered into the hands of the imperial household to be made eunuchs of, and shall be sent to Turkistan to be given as slaves to the soldiery. But, as these are rebels from Turkistan, it is requested that they may, instead, be sent to the Amoor region, to be given as slaves to the soldiery there. As Maiti Kuli is fourteen, it is requested that he may be delivered over to the imperial household as soon as the reply of the Board is received. Yima Kuli is just ten, K'ati Kuli and Aisan Ahung are under ten; they have, therefore, to be confined in prison until they attain the age of eleven, when they will be delivered over to the imperial household to "be dealt with according to law. Kuo-Tung-tao, formerly Chinese Minister in England, returned to China in April, 1879, having been recalled by his Government. He Template:Title=Appletons' annual cyclopaedia and register of important events, Volume 4stanford university library
  23. ^ Herbert Allen Giles (1898). A Chinese biographical dictionary, Volume 2. London: B. Quaritch. p. 894. Retrieved 2011-07-13. frugality. He entered into treaties of commerce with Great Britain and Russia, but failed to obtain their support against China. He died, or was murdered, while vainly trying to repel the advance of Tso TsuDg-t'ang's lieutenants. His son, $j£ "jlf jj$l, known as vj> [p[J J^ or Kuli Beg, and Buzurg Khan's son, both claimed the throne. The latter being defeated at Aksu fled into Russian territory, while the former had soon to take refuge in Tashkend. Foar of Yakoob's sons and two of his grandsons fell into the hands of the Chinese. One son was beheaded, one grandson died, and the rest were sentenced to be castrated and sent as slaves to the soldiers on the Amoor. 2361 Yang Ch'ang-chun ^ {{cite book}}: Text "^ Tung-lai in Shantung, he passed through g ^ Ch'ang-i, where an old friend named ^ ^ Wang Mi, about to become his subordinate, was then Magistrate. Wang called" ignored (help); Text "^. A licentiate of Hunan, who fought against the T'ai-p'ing rebels and had risen in 1874 to be Governor of Chehkiang but was dismissed in 1877 for making an improper recommendation. In the following year he was sent to assist Tso Tsung-t'ang in the north-west, and gradually rose again to high office. In 1884 he was sent to assist in the defence of Fuhkien, succeeding Tso Tsung-t'ang as Viceroy at Foochow in 1885. Three years later he was transferred to Kansuh, and in November 1895 he was ordered to retire on account of the Mahomedan rising. 2362 Yang Chen %% (T. ^^E). Died A.D. 124. A native of Hua-yin in Shensi, who taught as many as a thousand disciples, and came to be called the Confucius of the West. On one occasion when a stork had flown past with three eels in its beak, a disciple said to him, "That, sir, is a presage of your rise to a high post." Yielding to repeated requests, he came forth from his retirement at the age of 50 and entered upon a public career. Appointed to be Governor of j" ignored (help); line feed character in |quote= at position 670 (help)(STANFORD UNIVERSITY LIBRARY)[1]
  24. ^ Translations of the Peking Gazette. SHANGHAI. 1880. p. 83. Retrieved 2011-05-12. put in charge of a Pu Yiin, a degraded itain of the Wen Hsien battalion, and u Yuan-chiian and five other soldiers of i Kashgar garrison to be conveyed with the frontier there to await sentence. eir arrival in Kansu on the 19th February ring been reported, they were sent on, er examination, to the Judicial Commoner at Lan-chow Fu to be tried 1 dealt with according to law. In irae of tine, Shih Nien-tsu, the Judi1 Commissioner, reported that these iel children and grand-children, who d been committed to the prison of i Kao-lan Magistrate, were brought bee him and put upon their trial. Maiti lli stated that he was fourteen years of J, and the fourth son of Yakoob Beg; ma Kuli stated that he was ten, and the :hth son of Yakoob Beg; K'ati Kuli ted that he was six, and the ninth son Yakoob Beg; Aisan Ahung stated that was five, and the son of Beg Kuli. In ily to the most searching interrogation ipeoting the treasonable designs of Yaob Beg and the others, they all lintained that they knew nothing about a matter. Yakoob Beg, it would be membered, was a Kokandi rebel chief, i0, in 1864, together with the rebel ider Beg Kuli, leagued himself with e Mahommedan rebels Chin Hsiang-yin d his son, and, after crossing the mounua, seized Kashgar and gradually gained ssession of the eight southern cities, as ill as Turfan and Urumtsi, which places ire held for over ten years. When, evenally, the Imperial army, making rapid ogress, recaptured all the cities, he still ntured to offer resistance. Space itself a scarce contain the detestation of such imes. Death in its most cruel form is e penalty awarded by the law. In cases sedition, where the law condemns the Uefactors to death by the slow and painI process, the children and grand-children, it be shown that they were not privy to e treasonable designs of their parents, all be delivered, no matter whether they ve attained full age or not, into the hands the Imperial Household to be made nucha of, and shall be forwarded to irkestan and given over as slaves to e soldiery. If under the age of ten, ey shall be confined in prison until ey shall have reached the age of eleven, lereupon they shall be handed to the iperial Household to be dealt with accordg to law. In the present case, Yakoob ig'a sons Maiti Kuli, Yima Kuli, and 'atai Kuli; and the rebel chief Beg Kuli's a Aisan Ahung, are all under age, and were not, it has been proved, privy to the treasonable designs of their parents. They have therefore to be handed to the Imperial Household to be dealt with in accordance with the law which prescribes that, in casesof sedition, the sons and grandsons of malefactors condemned to death by the slow and painful process, if it be shown that they were not privy to the treasonable designs of their parents, shall, whether they have attained full age or not, be delivered into the hands of the Imperial Household to be made eunuchs of and shall be sent to Turkestan to be given as slaves to the soldiery. But, as these are rebels, from Turkestan, it is requested that they may, instead, be sent to the Amur region to be given as slaves to the soldiery there. As Maiti Kuli is fourteen, it is requested that he may be delivered over to the Imperial Household so soon as the reply of the Board is received. Yima Kuli is just ten, K'ati Kuli and Aisan Ahung are under ten; they have therefore to be confined in prison until they attain the age of eleven, when they will be delivered over to the Imperial Household to be dealt with according to law. This is the report received from Liu Ching-t'ang, and Your Minister having found the statements therein contained to be correct, has to apply for a decree commanding the Board to revise the proceedings and signify its decision that the law is to be carried ont.—Rescript: Let the Board of Punishments deliberate and submit a report. June 27th.—(1) A decree conferring the brevet rank of Provincial Judge upon Wang Chia-lin, formerly acting Prefect of Jui-chow in Kiangsu, now eighty years of age, who obtained the degree of provincial graduate sixty years ago. He is permitted to attend a second time at the Im Ming banquet. (2) The Board of Revenue report that they have already supplied Tls. 40,000 for the purchase of Nan-mu wood and other materials for the construction of the new shrines for the installation of tablets in the T'ai Miao, or Imperial Ancestral Temple. The Board of Works now state that the total cost will be Tls. 56,000, and the Board of Revenue agree to supply the balance. They object, however, to making any grant for expense of labour, etc. (3) Tso Tsung-t'ang reports that a temple has been erected in the Chinese quarter of the city of Kashgar to the memory of the officers and non-commissioned officers who fell in battle during the Kashgarian campaign. He prays that it may be entered on {{cite book}}: line feed character in |quote= at position 157 (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)(Original from the University of California)REPRINTED FROM THE "NORTH-CHINA HERALD AND SUPREME COURT AND CONSULAR GAZETTE."
  25. ^ The American annual cyclopedia and register of important events of the year ..., Volume 4. NEW YORK: D. Appleton and Company. 1888. p. 145. Retrieved 2011-05-12. their rights, and whenever a Chinese army should be sent of sufficient strength to maintain order in the province, the Czar would order its restoration to China. During the time that has since passed the province recovered somewhat under Russian rule from the depression into which it had sunk during the Mohammedan rebellion. Very little was heard of the Chinese in this region until the close of 1876. With the campaigns against the Tungani and against Yakoob Beg, they began to reassert their claims to their territory in Central Asia; and after the overthrow of Yakoob Beg's power they claimed the fulfillment of the Czar's promise. Bat, in spite of the diplomatic representations at St. Petersburg, and the menacing attitude of Tso-Tsung-Tung and his army at Manas and Aksu, the Russian authorities, both at home and in Asia, for eighteen months refused to give the Chinese any satisfaction. A Russian commission was finally appointed to draw np a treaty, and in September it presented its report, containing the draft of a treaty, of which the following are the most important points: First, Russian merchants will be admitted to all the interior markets of China. Secondly, China will pay Russia 5,000,000 rabies. Thirdly, Russia is to receive part of the steppe in the upper regions of the Irtish River beyond the Zaisan Sea. The proposed frontier will begin from the fortress of Saur and be continued past the Bostal and Kanas Seas. On the other side of Kulja the frontier is drawn from a point a little more to the southeast of Kanas to the town of TJsuntau, from which it runs eastward to the point where the old frontier is cut by the new one. Thus the Tekea River Valley is to remain Russian territory—that is to say, about a filth part of Kulja. This valley was ouce a Chinese possession, and was surrendered by treaty to Russia twenty years ago. The possession of this strip of territory will enable Russia to exert a very material influence upon the progress of events both is Kulja and in Eastern Turkistan. She will continue to hold in her hand the means of reoccupying the province if such a course should in future become necessary. The clauses relating to commerce will undoubtedly place in her grasp much of the trade of Western China; and if the Chinese should place restrictions in the way of Russian merchants, an excuse would be available to revert to the present condition ofthings. In spite of these disadvantages the treaty was accepted by the Chinese. In May, Hakim Khan Tun, the pretender to the Kashgar throne, quitted his exile on Russian territory, and, entering Kashgar with a large number of followers through the Pamir, endeavored to raise a rebellion against the Chi***e. This step was taken by Hakim Khan in order to profit by the angry excitement then reigning among the Mussulmans of Kashgar on account of the burning of the remains of Yakoob Beg, their late ruler, by order of the Chinese. In consequence of the rebellious atvoi. xix.—10 A titude of the Mussulmans of Kashgar, and their openly expressed regrets at the loss of their beloved Yakoob Beg, the Chinese authorities ordered the bodies of Yakoob Beg and of his son, lshana Beg, to be disinterred and publicly burned to cinders. The ashes of Yakoob were, moreover, sent to Peking. Such a proceeding only served to give new force to the existing discontent, and a conspiracy among the Mohammedans was the result. Hakim Khan endeavored to take advantage of this conspiracy, but the Chinese troops put a speedy end to the troubles. At the time that Eastern Turkistan again passed into the hands of China, there were taken prisoners four sons, two grandsons, two granddaughters, and four wives of Yakoob Beg. Some of these were executed and others died; but in 1879 there remained in prison at Lanchanfoo, the capital of Kan-suh, Maiti Kuli, aged fourteen; Yima Kuli, aged ten; K'ati Kuli, aged six, sons of Yakoob Beg; and Aisan Ahung, aged five, his grandson. These wretched little boys were treated like state criminals. They arrived in Kan-suh in February, 1879, and were sent on to the provincial capital to be tried and sentenced by the Judicial Commissioner there for the awful crime of being sons of their father. In the course of time the Commissioner made a report of the trial, which be concluded as.follows: In cases of sedition, where tho law condemns tho malefactors to death by tho slow and painful process, the children and grandchildren, if it bo shown that they were not privy to the treasonable designs of their parents, shall bo delivered, no matter whether they have attained full age or not, into tho hands of tho imperial household to be made eunuchs of, and shall be forwarded to Turkistan and given over as slaves to the soldiery. If under the age of ten, they shall be confined in prison until they snail have reached the age of eleven, whereupon they Bhall be handed to tho imperial household to Do dealt with according to law. In the present case, Yakoob Beg's sous Maiti Kuli, Yima Kuli, and K'ati Kuli, and the rebel chief Beg Kuli's son, Aisan Ahung, are all under age, and were not, it has been proved, privy to the treasonable designs of their parents. They have, therefore, to bo handed to the imperial household to be dealt with in accordance with the law, which prescribes that, in cases of sedition, tho sons and grandsons of malefactors condemned to death by the slow and painful process, if it be shown that they were not privy to the treasonable designs of their parents, shall, whether they have attained full age or not, be delivered into tho hands of the imperial household to be made eunuchs of, and shall be sent to Turkistan to be given as slaves to tho soldiery. But, as these are rebels from Turkistan, it is requested that they may, instead, be sent to the Amoor region, to be given as" slaves to the soldiery there. As Maiti Kuli is fourteen, it is requested that ho may bo delivered over to the imperial household as soon as the reply of the Board is received. Yima Kuli is just ten, K'ati Kuli and Aisan Ahum; are under ten; they have, therefore, to be confined in prison until they attain the age of eleven, when they will be delivered over to the imperial household to be dealt with according to law. Kuo-Tung-tao, formerly Chinese Minister in England, returned to China in April, 1879, having been recalled by his Government. He {{cite book}}: line feed character in |quote= at position 2482 (help)(Original from Harvard University)
  26. ^ Appletons' annual cyclopedia and register of important events: Embracing political, military, and ecclesiastical affairs; public documents; biography, statistics, commerce, finance, literature, science, agriculture, and mechanical industry, Volume 19. NEW YORK: Appleton. 1886. p. 145. Retrieved 2011-05-12. their rights, and whenever a Chinese army should be sent of sufficient strength to maintain order in the province, the Czar would order its restoration to China. During the time that has since passed the province recovered somewhat under Russian rule from the depression into which it had sunk during the Mohammedan rebellion. Very little was heard of the Chinese in this region until the close of 1876. With the campaigns against the Tungant and against Yakoob Beg, they began to reassert their claims to their territory in Central Asia; and after the overthrow of Yakoob Beg's power they claimed the fulfillment of the Czar's promise. But, in spite of the diplomatic representations at St. Petersburg, and the menacing attitude of Tso-Tsung-Tang and his army at Manas and Aksu, the Russian authorities, both at home and in Asia, for eighteen months refused to give the Chinese any satisfaction. A Russian commission was finally appointed to draw up a treaty, and in September it presented its report, containing the draft of a treaty, of which the following are the most important points: First, Russian merchants will be admitted to all the interior markets of China. Secondly, China will pay Russia 5,000,000 rabies. Thirdly, Russia i3 to receive part of the steppe in the upper regions of the Irtish River beyond the Zaisan Sea. The proposed frontier will begin from the fortress of Saur and be continued past the Bostal and Kanas Sew. On the other side of Eulja the frontier is drawn from a point a little more to the southeast of Kanas to the town of Usuntau, from which it runs eastward to the point where the old frontier is cut by the new one. Thus the Tekes River Valley is to remain Russian territory—that is to say, about a fifth part of Kulja. This valley was ouce a Chinese possession, and was surrendered by treaty to Russia twenty years ago. The possession of this strip of territory will enable Russia to exert a very material influence upon the progress of events both in Kalja and in Eastern Turkistan. She will continue to hold in her band the means of reoccupying the province if such a course should in future become necessary. The clauses relating to commerce will undoubtedly place in her grasp much of the trade of Western China; and if the Chinese should place restrictions in the way of Russian merchants, an excuse would be available to revert to the present condition of things. In spite of these disadvantages the treaty was accepted by the Chinese. In May, Hakim Khan Tufi, the pretender to the Kaahgar throne, quitted his exile on Russian territory, and, entering Eashgar with a large number of followers through the Pamir, endeavored to raise a rebellion against the Chinese. This step was taken by Hakim Khan in order to profit by the angry excitement then reigning among the Mussulmans of Eashgar on account of the burning of the remains of Yakoob Beg, their late ruler, by order of the u In consequence of the rebellious atVol. xix.—10 A titude of the Mussulmans of Eashgar, and their openly expressed regrets at the loss of their beloved Yakoob Beg, the Chinese authorities ordered the bodies of Yakoob Beg and of his son, Ishana Beg, to be disinterred and publicly burned to cinders. The ashes of Yakoob were, moreover, sent to Peking. Such a proceeding only served to give new force to the existing discontent, and a conspiracy among the Mohammedans was the result. Hakim Ehan endeavored to take advantage of this conspiracy, but the Chinese troops put a speedy end to the troubles. At the time that Eastern Turkistan again passed into the hands of China, there were taken prisoners four sons, two grandsons, two granddaughters, and four wives of Yakoob Beg. Some of these were executed and others died; but in 1879 there remained in prison at Lanchan- • foo, the capital of Kan-suh, Maiti Kuli, aged fourteen; Yima Euli, aged ten; E'ati Euli, aged six, sons of Yakoob Beg; and Aisan Anting, aged five, his grandson. These wretched little boys were treated like state criminals. They arrived in Kan-suh in February, 1879, and were sent on to the provincial capital to be tried and sentenced by the Judicial Commissioner there for the awful crime of being sons of their father. In the course of time the Commissioner made a report of the trial, which he concluded as follows: In cases of sedition, whore the law condemns the malefactors to death by the slow and paintul process, the children and grandchildren, if it be shown that they were not privy to the treasonable designs of their parents, shall be delivered, no matter whether they have attained full ago or not, into the hands of the imperial household to be made eunuchs of, and shall bo forwarded to Turkistan and given over as slaves to the soldiery. If under the ago of ten, they shall be confined in prison until they shall have reached the age of eleven, whereupon they Bhall be handed to the imperial household to be dealt with according to law. In tho present cose, .Yakoob Beg's sons Maiti Kuli, Yima Kuli, and K'ati Kuli, and the rebel chief Beg Kuli's son, Aisan Ahung, are all under age, and were not, it has been proved, privy to the treasonable designs of their parents. They have, therefore, to be handed to the imperial household to be dealt with in accordance with tho law, which prescribes that, in cases of sedition, the sons and grandsons of malefactors condemned to death by the slow and painful process, if it be shown that they were not privy to the treasonable designs of their parents, shall, whether they have attained full age or not, be delivered into the hands of the imperial household to be made eunuchs of, and shall be sent to Turkistan to be given as slaves to the soldiery. But, as these are rebels from Turkistan, it is requested that they may, instead, be sent to the Amoor region, to be given as slaves to the soldiery there. As Maiti Kuli is fourteen, it is requested that he may be delivered over to the imperial household as soon as the reply of the Board is received. Yima Kuli is just ten, K'ati Kuli and Aisan Ahuiu? are under ten; they have, therefore, to be confined in prison until they attain tho ago of eleven, when thev will be delivered over to tho imperial household to "be dealt with according to law. Kuo-Tung-tao, formerly Chinese Minister in England, returned to China in April, 1879, having been recalled by his Government. He {{cite book}}: line feed character in |quote= at position 2481 (help)(Original from Northwestern University)
  27. ^ Peter Tompkins (1963). The eunuch and the virgin: a study of curious customs. C. N. Potter. p. 32. Retrieved 2010-11-30.
  28. ^ Edward Harper Parker (1903). China, past and present. LONDON: Chapman and Hall, ld. p. 403. Retrieved 2012-02-28. Manchu conquest . Slaves were obliged, however, to intermarry amongst themselves, and, though the males of free families were allowed to marry female slaves if they really wished, as a general rule the Ming statutes forbade such unions, and certainly those between free females and male slaves. A slave's peculium or private property belonged to his master in law, but public opinion was against arbitrary confiscation, and rich slaves were usually able to make independent use of their wealth by purchasing emancipation from their owners. Under the Manchus the old idea of Government slavery has almost disappeared, at least in name; but in effect the punishment of banishment, when coupled with the obligation to work under Government officers, is practically the same. In the case of the traitors, the families are reduced to slavery and "given to the Manchu soldiery." The eunuch class is partly recruited from the young sons of arch-traitors, as, for instance, the sons of Yakub Beg. During the early wars of the reigning dynasty, frequent mention is made of captives of war. At first each Manchu soldier seems to have had his share of human plunder; but as the new family gradually settled down upon the throne, the subject race regained its self-respect, and wriggled out of its inferior position. Now such prisoners of war are rarely met with except on the frontiers of Tibet. Criminals are sometimes sent to " Mussulmans on the frontier capable of keeping a hold on them." As already stated, many Chinese give up their liberty for protection; but already, in 1645, we find the first Emperor ordaining that "Chinese were not to be terrorized into becoming slaves ;" and, as to criminals, a tendency showed itself to free the innocent families from taint, except in cases of treason and violent robbery. In 1652 the profession of "slave-trader" was made illegal, as it was found that, not only free Chinese, but even Manchu women were being kidnapped. And so on until at last it was necessary to put a stop altogether to the Chinese practice of becoming a client attached as a kind of serf to the Manchu banners. In 1651 regulations were made providing that prisoners of war owned by the Manchus should be allowed to visit their friends occasionally, and, generally, a tendency was shown to soften {{cite book}}: line feed character in |quote= at position 540 (help)
  29. ^ Thwaites, Richard (1986). "Real Life China 1978-1983". Rich Communications, Canberra, Australia. 0-00-217547-9. Retrieved December 14, 2006.

References

In literature

External links

  • [2] Copper coins of the Rebels- Rashiddin and Yakub Beg.

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