View source for Rye

{{short description|Species of grain}}
{{good article}}
{{Distinguish|ryegrass}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2016}}
{{Use American English|date=July 2016}}
{{speciesbox
|name=Rye
|image=Ear of rye.jpg
|genus=Secale
|species=cereale
|authority=[[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]
|synonyms=''Secale fragile'' <small>[[M.Bieb.]]</small>
}}

'''Rye''' ('''''Secale cereale''''') is a [[Poaceae|grass]] grown extensively as a [[grain]], a [[cover crop]] and a [[forage]] crop. It is grown principally in an area from Eastern and Northern Europe into Russia. It is much more tolerant of cold weather and poor soil than other cereals, making it useful in those regions; its vigorous growth suppresses weeds and provides abundant forage for animals early in the year. It is a member of the wheat tribe ([[Triticeae]]) which includes the cereals [[wheat]] and [[barley]]. Rye grain is used for  [[rye bread|bread]], [[rye beer|beer]], [[rye whiskey]], and animal [[fodder]]. In Scandinavia, rye was a staple food in the Middle Ages, and rye [[crispbread]] remains a popular food in the region. Europe produces around half of the world's rye; relatively little is traded between countries. A wheat-rye hybrid, [[triticale]], combines the qualities of the two parent crops and is produced in large quantities worldwide. In European folklore, the {{lang|de|Roggenwolf}} ("rye wolf") is a carnivorous corn demon or {{lang|de|[[Feldgeister|Feldgeist]]}}.

== Origins ==

[[File:Wild rye.jpg|thumb|left|Wild rye]]

The rye genus ''[[Secale]]'' is in the [[grass]] tribe [[Triticeae]], which contains other [[cereal]]s such as [[barley]] (''Hordeum'') and [[wheat]] (''Triticum'').<ref name="Soreng-2017">{{cite journal | last1=Soreng | first1=Robert J. | last2=Peterson | first2=Paul M. | last3=Romaschenko | first3=Konstantin | last4=Davidse | first4=Gerrit | last5=Teisher | first5=Jordan K. | last6=Clark | first6=Lynn G. | last7=Barberá | first7=Patricia | last8=Gillespie | first8=Lynn J. | last9=Zuloaga | first9=Fernando O. |display-authors=3 | title=A worldwide phylogenetic classification of the Poaceae (Gramineae) II: An update and a comparison of two 2015 classifications | journal=Journal of Systematics and Evolution | volume=55 | issue=4 | date=2017 | issn=1674-4918 | doi=10.1111/jse.12262 | pages=259–290| hdl=10261/240149 | hdl-access=free }}</ref>

The generic name ''Secale'', related to Italian {{lang|it|segale}} and French {{lang|fr|seigle}} meaning "rye", is of unknown origin but may derive from a Balkan language.<ref>{{cite dictionary |last1=Walde |first1=Alois |last2=Hofmann |first2=Johann Baptist |year=1954 |chapter=secale |title=Lateinisches etymologisches Wörterbuch |language=German |trans-title=Latin Etymology Dictionary |edition=3rd |volume=2 |location=Heidelberg |publisher=Carl Winter |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/walde/page/n1411/mode/2up?view=theater |page=504}}</ref> The English name rye derives from Old English {{lang|ang|ryge}}, related to Dutch {{lang|nl|rogge}}, German {{lang|de|Roggen}}, and Russian {{lang|ru|рожь}} {{transl|ru|rožʹ}}, again all with the same meaning.<ref>{{cite web |title=rye (n.) |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/rye |publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=4 May 2024}}</ref>

Rye is one of several [[crop wild relative|cereals that grow wild]] in the [[Levant]], central and eastern [[Turkey]] and adjacent areas. Evidence uncovered at the [[Epipalaeolithic]] site of [[Tell Abu Hureyra]] in the [[Euphrates]] valley of northern [[Syria]] suggests that rye was among the first cereal crops to be systematically cultivated, around 13,000 years ago.<ref name="Hillman-2001">{{cite journal |last1=Hillman |first1=Gordon |last2=Hedges |first2=Robert |last3=Moore |first3=Andrew |last4=Colledge |first4=Susan |last5=Pettitt |first5=Paul |date=2001 |title=New evidence of Lateglacial cereal cultivation at Abu Hureyra on the Euphrates |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/200033056 |url-status=live |journal= [[The Holocene]] |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=383–393 |bibcode=2001Holoc..11..383H |doi=10.1191/095968301678302823 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211120221734/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/200033056_New_evidence_of_Late_Glacial_cereal_cultivation_at_Abu_Hureyra_on_the_Euphrates |archive-date=November 20, 2021 |access-date=July 12, 2016 |s2cid=84930632}}</ref> However, that claim remains controversial; critics point to inconsistencies in the [[radiocarbon]] dates, and identifications based solely on grain, rather than on [[chaff]].<ref name="Colledge-2010">{{cite journal |last1=Colledge |first1=Sue |last2=Conolly |first2=James |date=2010 |title=Reassessing the evidence for the cultivation of wild crops during the Younger Dryas at Tell Abu Hureyra, Syria |journal= [[Environmental Archaeology]] |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=124–138 |doi=10.1179/146141010X12640787648504 |bibcode=2010EnvAr..15..124C |s2cid=129087203}}</ref>

Domesticated rye occurs in small quantities at a number of [[Neolithic]] sites in Asia Minor ([[Anatolia]], now Turkey), such as the [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic B]] Can Hasan III near [[Çatalhöyük]],<ref name="Hillman-1978">{{cite journal |last1=Hillman |first1=Gordon |date=1978 |title=On the Origins of Domestic rye: Secale Cereale: The Finds from Aceramic Can Hasan III in Turkey |journal= [[Anatolian Studies]] |volume=28 |pages=157–174 |doi=10.2307/3642748 |jstor=3642748 |s2cid=85225244}}{{Subscription required|via=[[JSTOR]]}}</ref><ref name="Sidhu-2019">{{cite journal |last1=Sidhu |first1=Jagdeep |last2=Ramakrishnan |first2=Sai Mukund |last3=Shaukat |first3=Ali |last4=Amy |first4=Bernado |last5=Bai |first5=Guihua |last6=Sidrat |first6=Abdullah |last7=Ayana |first7=Girma |last8=Sehgal |first8=Sunish |date=2019 |title=Assessing the genetic diversity and characterizing genomic regions conferring Tan Spot resistance in cultivated rye |journal= [[PLOS ONE]] |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=e0214519 |bibcode=2019PLoSO..1414519S |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0214519 |pmc=6438500 |pmid=30921415 |doi-access=free}}</ref> but is otherwise absent from the archaeological record until the [[Bronze Age]] of central Europe, c. 1800–1500 BCE.<ref name="Zohary-2012">{{cite book |last1=Zohary |first1=Daniel |last2=Hopf |first2=Maria |last3=Weiss |first3=Ehud |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1hHSYoqY-AwC&pg=PA62 |title=Domestication of Plants in the Old World: The Origin and Spread of Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia, Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin |date=2012 |publisher= [[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-954906-1 |location=Oxford |page=62 |access-date=October 5, 2016 |via=Google Books}}</ref> 

It is likely that rye was brought westwards from Asia Minor as a [[secondary crop]], meaning that it was a minor admixture in wheat as a result of [[Vavilovian mimicry]], and was only later cultivated in its own right.<ref name="McElroy-2014">{{cite journal |last=McElroy |first=J. Scott |year=2014 |title=Vavilovian Mimicry: Nikolai Vavilov and His Little-Known Impact on Weed Science |journal= [[Weed Science]] |volume=62 |issue=2 |pages=207–216 |doi=10.1614/ws-d-13-00122.1 |s2cid=86549764|doi-access=free}}</ref> Archeological evidence of this grain has been found in [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] contexts along the [[Rhine]] and the [[Danube]] and in Ireland and Britain.<ref name="Gyulai-2014">{{cite journal |last1=Gyulai |first1=Ferenc |date=2014 |title=Archaeobotanical overview of rye (''Secale Cereale'' L.) in the Carpathian-basin I. from the beginning until the Roman age |url=http://docplayer.net/3685335-Archaeobotanical-overview-of-rye-secale-cereale-l-in-the-carpathian-basin-i-from-the-beginning-until-the-roman-age.html |url-status=live |journal= Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Science |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=25–35 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191231225120/http://docplayer.net/3685335-Archaeobotanical-overview-of-rye-secale-cereale-l-in-the-carpathian-basin-i-from-the-beginning-until-the-roman-age.html |archive-date=December 31, 2019 |access-date=July 14, 2016}} page 26.</ref> The Roman naturalist [[Pliny the Elder]] was dismissive of a grain that may have been rye, writing that it "is a very poor food and only serves to avert starvation".<ref name="Evans-1981">{{cite book |last1=Evans |first1=L. T. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HEQ9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA11 |title=Wheat Science: Today and Tomorrow |last2=Peacock |first2=W. J. |date=March 19, 1981 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-23793-2 |page=11 |access-date=November 15, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200526010205/https://books.google.com/books?id=HEQ9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA11 |archive-date=May 26, 2020 |url-status=live |via=Google Books}}</ref> He said it was mixed with [[spelt]] "to mitigate its bitter taste, and even then is most unpleasant to the stomach".<ref>{{cite book |author=[[Pliny the Elder]] |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137%3Abook%3D18%3Achapter%3D40 |title=The Natural History |date=1855 |publisher=[[Taylor and Francis]] (T&F) |location= [[London]] |at=Book 18, Ch. 40 |translator1-last=Bostock |translator1-first=John |access-date=July 12, 2016 |translator2-last=Riley |translator2-first=H. T. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106201723/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137%3Abook%3D18%3Achapter%3D40 |archive-date=January 6, 2017 |url-status=live |via=[[Perseus Digital Library]], Tufts University |orig-year=c. 77–79}}</ref>

== Description == 

Rye is a tall grass grown for its seeds; it can be an [[Annual plant|annual]] or a [[Biennial plant|biennial]]. Depending on environmental conditions and variety it reaches {{convert|1|to|3|m}} in height. Its leaves are blue-green, long, and pointed. The seeds are carried in a curved head or spike some {{convert|7|to|15|cm}} long. The head is composed of many [[spikelet]]s, each of which holds two small flowers; the spikelets alternate left and right up the head.<ref name="PlantVillage">{{cite web |title=Rye |url=https://plantvillage.psu.edu/topics/rye/infos |website=PlantVillage |access-date=4 May 2024}}</ref>

<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=180 heights=220>
File:Illustration Secale cereale0.jpg|Botanical illustration
File:Secale cereale - cereal rye 2 - Steve Hurst USDA-NRCS PLANTS Database.jpg|Seed in [[husk]]
File:Secale cereale - cereal rye - Steve Hurst USDA-NRCS PLANTS Database.jpg|Different types of grains
File:Rye grains rotated (cropped).jpg|The seeds of rye are some 7 or 8 mm long, much larger and less round than [[wheat]]. 
</gallery>

== Cultivation ==

[[File:Ivan Shishkin - Рожь - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|1878 oil painting ''[[Rye (Shishkin)|A Rye Field]]'' by [[Ivan Shishkin]] ]]

Since the [[Middle Ages]], people have cultivated rye widely in [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern Europe]]. It serves as the main [[bread]] cereal in most areas east of the [[France–Germany border]] and north of [[Hungary]]. In Southern Europe, it was cultivated on marginal lands.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Behre |first=Karl-Ernst |date=1992 |title=The history of rye cultivation in Europe |url=https://www.academia.edu/17566065 |url-status=live |journal= [[Vegetation History and Archaeobotany]] |volume=1 |issue=3 |doi=10.1007/BF00191554 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220323020416/https://www.academia.edu/17566065 |archive-date=March 23, 2022 |access-date=February 17, 2022 |s2cid=129518700}}</ref>

Rye grows well in much poorer soils than those necessary for most cereal grains. Thus, it is an especially valuable crop in regions where the soil has [[sand]] or [[peat]]. Rye plants withstand cold better than other small grains, surviving snow cover that would kill winter wheat. Winter rye is the most popular: it is planted and begins to grow in autumn. In spring, the plants develop rapidly.<ref name="Wong-1998"/> This allows it to provide spring grazing, at a time when spring-planted wheat has only just germinated.<ref>{{cite web |title=Growing Winter Rye in Scotland |url=https://www.fas.scot/article/growing-winter-rye-in-scotland/ |publisher=Farm Advisory Service Scotland |access-date=4 May 2024 |date=10 May 2023}}</ref>

The physical properties of rye affect attributes of the final food product such as seed size, surface area, and porosity. The surface area of the seed directly correlates to the drying and heat transfer time.<ref name="Jouki-2012">{{cite journal |last1=Jouki |first1=Mohammad |last2=Emam-Djomeh |first2=Zahra |last3=Khazaei |first3=Naimeh |date=2012 |title=Physical Properties of Whole Rye Seed (''Secale cereal'') |journal=International Journal of Food Engineering |volume=8 |issue=4 |doi=10.1515/1556-3758.2054|s2cid=102003836}}</ref> Smaller seeds have increased heat transfer, which leads to lower drying time. Seeds with lower porosity lose water more slowly during the process of drying.<ref name="Jouki-2012" />

Rye is [[harvest]]ed like wheat with a [[combine harvester]], which cuts the plants, [[threshing|threshes]] and [[winnowing|winnows]] the grain, and releases the [[straw]] to the field where it is later pressed into bales or left as soil amendment. The resultant grain is stored in local [[silo]]s or transported to regional [[grain elevator]]s and combined with other lots for storage and distant shipment. Before the era of [[mechanised agriculture]], rye harvesting was a [[manual labour|manual]] task performed with [[scythe]]s or [[sickle]]s.<ref name="Jensen-1988">{{cite book |last=Jensen |first=Joan M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v8OSv8QQQgoC&pg=PA47 |title=Loosening the Bonds: Mid-Atlantic Farm Women, 1750–1850 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] (YUP) |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-300-04265-8 |location=New Haven |page=47 |access-date=2016-07-17 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref name="Jones-2016">{{cite book |last=Jones |first=Peter M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jv3VCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA123 |title=Agricultural Enlightenment: Knowledge, Technology, and Nature, 1750–1840 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] (OUP) |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-19-102515-0 |location=Oxford |page=123}}</ref>

=== Agroecology ===

[[Winter rye]] is any breed of rye planted in the autumn to provide ground cover for the winter. It grows during warmer days of the winter when sunlight temporarily warms the plant above freezing, even while there is general snow cover. It can be used as a cover crop to prevent the growth of [[winter-hardy]] weeds.<ref name="Burgos-2006">{{cite book |last1=Burgos |first1=Nilda R. |title=Handbook of Sustainable Weed Management |last2=Talbert |first2=Ronald E. |last3=Kuk |first3=Yong In |date=2006 |publisher=Haworth Press |isbn=978-1-56022-957-5 |editor1-last=Sing |editor1-first=Harinder P. |location= [[New York City|New York]] |page=110 |chapter=Grass-legume mixed cover crops for weed management |access-date=October 5, 2016 |editor2-last=Batish |editor2-first=Daisy Rani |editor3-last=Kohli |editor3-first=Ravinder Kumar |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Az-qoHPCnvYC&pg=PA110 |via= [[Google Books]] }}</ref> 

Rye grows better than any other cereal in heavy [[clay]] and light sandy soil, and infertile or drought-affected soils. It can tolerate [[pH]] between 4.5 and 8.0, but soils having pH 5.0 to 7.0 are best suited for rye cultivation. Rye grows best in fertile, well-drained [[loam]] or clay-loam soils.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.eolss.net/ebooklib/bookinfo/soils-plant-growth-crop-production.aspx |title=Soils, Plant Growth and Crop Production Volume II |date=2010 |publisher=[[EOLSS]] Publishers |isbn=978-1-84826-368-0 |editor=Willy H. Verheye |page=121 |chapter=Growth And Production Of Oat And Rye |access-date=December 4, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511044506/https://www.eolss.net/ebooklib/bookinfo/soils-plant-growth-crop-production.aspx |archive-date=May 11, 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> As for temperature, the crop can thrive in subzero environments, assisted by the production of [[antifreeze protein|antifreeze polypeptide]]s (different from those produced by some fish and insects) by the leaves of winter rye.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hon |first1=W. C. |last2=Griffith |first2=M. |last3=Chong |first3=P. |last4=Yang |first4=D. S.-C. |date=March 1, 1994 |title=Extraction and Isolation of Antifreeze Proteins from Winter Rye (''Secale cereale'' L.) Leaves |journal=[[Plant Physiology (journal)|Plant Physiology]] |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=971–980 |doi=10.1104/pp.104.3.971 |pmc=160695 |pmid=12232141}}</ref>

Rye is a common, [[grass weed|unwanted invader]] of [[winter wheat]] fields. If allowed to grow and mature, it may cause substantially reduced prices (docking) for harvested wheat.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lyon |first1=Drew J. |last2=Klein |first2=Robert N |date=May 2007 |title=Rye Control in Winter Wheat |url=http://www.ianrpubs.unl.edu/pages/publicationD.jsp?publicationId=106 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413144910/http://www.ianrpubs.unl.edu/pages/publicationD.jsp?publicationId=106 |archive-date=April 13, 2014 |access-date=July 12, 2016 |publisher=Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources, [[University of Nebraska]], Lincoln Extension |edition=Revised |orig-year=2002}}</ref>

=== Pests and diseases ===

{{further|List of rye diseases}}

[[File:Claviceps purpurea 47424140.jpg|thumb|The poisonous [[ergot]] fungus growing on rye]]

Pests including the nematode ''[[Ditylenchus dipsaci]]'' and a variety of herbivorous insects can seriously affect plant health.<ref name="Matz-1991">{{cite book |last=Matz |first=Samuel A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WKY0h5YrQVwC&pg=PA182 |title=Chemistry and Technology of Cereals as Food and Feed |publisher=[[Van Nostrand Reinhold]]/AVI |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-442-30830-8 |location=New York |pages=181–182 |access-date=July 14, 2016}}</ref>

Rye is highly susceptible to the [[ergot]] fungus.<ref>[http://www.mondofacto.com/facts/dictionary?ergot ergot] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303201034/http://www.mondofacto.com/facts/dictionary?ergot|date=March 3, 2016}}, online medical dictionary</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090910032206/http://www.mercksource.com/pp/us/cns/cns_hl_dorlands_split.jsp?pg=%2Fppdocs%2Fus%2Fcommon%2Fdorlands%2Fdorland%2Fthree%2F000036589.htm ergot], [[Dorland's Medical Dictionary]]</ref> Consumption of ergot-infected rye by humans and animals results in [[ergotism]], which causes convulsions, miscarriage, necrosis of digits, hallucinations and death. Historically, damp northern countries that depended on rye as a staple crop were subject to periodic epidemics.<ref name="Wong-1998">{{cite web |last=Wong |first=George J. |date=1998 |title=Ergot of Rye: History |url=http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/wong/BOT135/LECT12.HTM |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051124221943/http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/wong/bot135/lect12.htm |archive-date=November 24, 2005 |access-date=July 12, 2016 |work=Botany 135 Syllabus |publisher= [[University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa]], Botany Department}}</ref> Modern grain-cleaning and milling methods have practically eliminated ergotism, but it remains a risk if food safety vigilance breaks down.<ref name="Belser-Ehrlich-2013">{{cite journal |last1=Belser-Ehrlich |first1=Sarah |last2=Harper |first2=Ashley |last3=Hussey |first3=John |last4=Hallock |first4=Robert |title=Human and cattle ergotism since 1900: Symptoms, outbreaks, and regulations |journal=Toxicology and Industrial Health |volume=29 |issue=4 |date=2013 |doi=10.1177/0748233711432570 |pages=307–316|pmid=22903169 }}</ref>

After an absence of 60 years, [[rye stem rust|stem rust]] (''Puccinia graminis'' f. sp. ''tritici'') has returned to [[Europe]] in the 2020s.<ref name="Annika-2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Annika |first1=Djurle |last2=Young |first2=Beth |last3=Berlin |first3=Anna |last4=Vågsholm |first4=Ivar |last5=Blomstrom |first5=Anne |last6=Nygren |first6=Jim |last7=Kvarnheden |first7=Anders |year=2022 |title=Addressing biohazards to food security in primary production |journal=[[Food Security]] |language=English |publisher=Springer Nature |volume=14 |issue=6 |pages=1475–1497 |doi=10.1007/s12571-022-01296-7 |doi-access=free |s2cid=250250761}}</ref> Areas affected include [[Germany]], [[Russia]] ([[Western Siberia]]), [[Spain]], and [[Sweden]].<ref name="Annika-2022" />

== Production and consumption ==

[[File:2014 Rye Countries Export Treemap.png|thumb|upright=1.7|Exports by country (2014)<ref>[http://atlas.cid.harvard.edu/explore/tree_map/export/show/all/1002/2014/ Harvard Atlas of Economic Complexity]</ref>]]

[[File:RyeYield.png|thumb|upright=1.7|Map of global production. Rye is grown mainly across Central and Northern Europe into Russia.]]

Rye is grown primarily in Eastern, Central and Northern Europe. The main rye belt stretches from northern Germany through Poland, Ukraine, and eastwards into central and northern Russia. Rye is also grown in North America, in South America including Argentina, in Oceania (Australia and New Zealand), in Turkey, and in northern China. Production levels of rye have fallen since 1992 in most of the producing nations, {{as of|2022|lc=y}}; for instance, production of rye in Russia fell from 13.9 metric tons<!--intentional--> in 1992 to 2.2 metric tons in 2022.<ref name="FAOSTAT">{{cite web |url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL |title=Crops and livestock products |work=FAOSTAT |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]]}}</ref><ref name="FAOSTATb" />

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right"
|+ Top rye producers (in metric tons)
|-
! Producer
! 2022<ref name="FAOSTATb">{{cite web |title=FAOSTAT |url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL |website=www.fao.org |access-date=1 March 2024}}</ref>
! 2020<ref name="FAOSTATb" />
! 2018<ref name="FAOSTATb" />
! 2016<ref name="FAOSTATb" />
! 2014<ref name="FAOSTATb" />
|-
|{{left}} {{EU}}  ||7,450,920 ||8,939,510 ||6,141,040 ||7,400,686 ||8,890,726
|-
|{{left}} {{GER}} ||3,132,300 ||3,513,400 ||2,201,400 ||3,173,800 ||3,854,400
|-
|{{left}} {{POL}} ||2,337,130 ||2,929,930 ||2,126,570 ||2,199,578 ||2,792,593
|-
|{{left}} {{RUS}} ||2,178,808 ||2,377,629 ||1,916,056 ||2,547,878 ||3,280,759
|-
|{{left}} {{BLR}} ||  750,000 ||  1,050,702 ||  502,505 ||650,908 ||   867,075
|-
|{{left}} {{DEN}} ||  691,470 ||  699,370 ||  476,590 ||  577,200 ||   677,800
|-
|{{left}} {{CAN}} ||  520,177 ||  487,800 ||  236,400 ||  436,000 ||   217,500
|-
|{{left}} {{CHN}} ||  500,767 ||  512,591 ||  504,698 ||  545,657 ||   520,000
|-
|{{left}} {{UKR}} ||  314,030 ||  456,780 ||  393,780 ||  391,560 ||   478,000
|-
|{{left}} {{USA}} ||  312,460 ||  292,930 ||  214,180 ||  290,379 ||   182,610
|-
|{{left}} {{UK}} ||   242,207 ||   72,450 ||   95,366 ||   48,563 ||   55,899
|-
|{{left}} {{ARG}} ||   225,510 ||   221,201 ||   86,098 ||  60,676 ||   52,130
|-
|{{left}} {{ESP}} ||  188,880 ||  407,620 ||  404,280 ||  377,355 ||   290,970
|-
|{{left}} '''World total''' ||'''13,143,055''' ||'''15,036,812''' ||'''10,702,482''' ||'''12,999,144''' ||'''15,204,158'''
|}
{{Clear}}

World trade of rye is low compared with other grains such as wheat. The total export of rye for 2016 was $186 million<ref>{{cite web |url=http://atlas.media.mit.edu/en/visualize/tree_map/hs92/export/show/all/100200/2016/ |title=OEC - Countries that export Rye (2016) |access-date=October 22, 2017 |archive-date=March 23, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220323020546/https://oec.world/en/home-a |url-status=live}}</ref> compared with $30.1 billion for wheat.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://atlas.media.mit.edu/en/visualize/tree_map/hs92/export/show/all/100190/2016/ |title=OEC - Countries that export Wheat except durum wheat, and meslin (2016) |access-date=October 22, 2017 |archive-date=March 23, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220323020450/https://oec.world/en/home-a |url-status=live}}</ref>

Poland consumes the most rye per person at {{cvt|32.4|kg}} per capita (2009), followed by the Nordic and Baltic countries. The EU in general is around {{cvt|5.6|kg}} per capita. The entire world only consumes {{cvt|0.9|kg|sigfig=1}} per capita.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ryeandhealth.org/statistics-a-usage |title=Statistics and Usage - www.ryeandhealth.org |access-date=October 22, 2017 |archive-date=June 15, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615152805/http://www.ryeandhealth.org/statistics-a-usage |url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Nutritional value ==

{{nutritionalvalue
|name=Rye
|kJ=1414
|protein=10.34 g
|water=10.6 g
|fat=1.63 g
|carbs=75.86 g
|fiber=15.1 g
|sugars=0.98 g
|calcium_mg=24
|iron_mg=3
|magnesium_mg=110
|phosphorus_mg=332
|potassium_mg=510
|sodium_mg=2
|zinc_mg=3
|manganese_mg=3
|thiamin_mg=0.3
|riboflavin_mg=0.3
|niacin_mg=4
|pantothenic_mg=1
|vitB6_mg=0.3
|folate_ug=38
|choline_mg=30
|vitE_mg=1
|vitK_ug=6
|opt1n=Selenium
|opt1v=14 µg
|note=[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/168884/nutrients=Full Link to USDA Database Entry]
}}

Raw rye contains 11% water, 76% [[carbohydrate]]s, 10% [[Protein (nutrient)|protein]], and 2% [[fat]] (table). A {{convert|100|g|oz|abbr=off|adj=on|frac=2}} reference amount of rye provides {{convert|338|kcal|kJ|order=flip|abbr=off}} of [[food energy]], and is a rich source (20% or more of the [[Daily Value]], DV) of [[essential nutrient]]s, including [[dietary fiber]], [[B vitamins]], such as [[thiamine]] and [[Niacin (nutrient)|niacin]] (each at 25% DV), and several [[dietary minerals]]. Highest micronutrient contents are for [[manganese in biology|manganese]] (130% DV) and [[phosphorus in biology|phosphorus]] (27% DV) (table).

=== Health effects ===

According to [[Health Canada]] and the U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]], consuming at least {{convert|4|g}} per day of rye [[beta-glucan]] or {{convert|0.65|g}} per serving of [[soluble fiber]] can lower levels of [[blood cholesterol]], a risk factor for [[cardiovascular diseases]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/cfrsearch.cfm?fr=101.81 |title=21 CFR Part 101 [Docket No. 2004P-0512], Food Labeling: Health Claims; Soluble Dietary Fiber From Certain Foods and Coronary Heart Disease |publisher=US Food and Drug Administration |date=22 May 2006 |access-date=2 December 2015 |archive-date=February 24, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224155008/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/cfrsearch.cfm?fr=101.81 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/food-nutrition/food-labelling/health-claims/assessments/assessment-health-claim-about-barley-products-blood-cholesterol-lowering.html |title=Summary of Health Canada's Assessment of a Health Claim about Barley Products and Blood Cholesterol Lowering |publisher=Health Canada |date=12 July 2012 |access-date=27 November 2022}}</ref>

Eating whole-grain rye, as well as other high-fibre grains, improves regulation of [[blood sugar]] (i.e., reduces blood glucose response to a meal).<ref name="Harris-2010">{{cite journal |last1=Harris |first1=Kristina A. |last2=Kris-Etherton |first2=Penny M. |title=Effects of Whole Grains on Coronary Heart Disease Risk |journal=Current Atherosclerosis Reports |volume=12 |issue=6 |date=2010 |doi=10.1007/s11883-010-0136-1 |pages=368–376|pmid=20820954 }}</ref> Consuming [[breakfast cereal]]s containing rye over weeks to months also improved cholesterol levels and glucose regulation.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Williams |first=P.G. |title=The benefits of breakfast cereal consumption: a systematic review of the evidence base |journal=Advances in Nutrition |volume=5 |issue=5 |pages=636S–673S |date=September 2014 |pmid=25225349 |pmc=4188247 |doi=10.3945/an.114.006247}}</ref>

=== Health concerns ===

Like wheat, barley, and their hybrids and derivatives, rye contains [[gluten]]s and related prolamines, which makes it an unsuitable grain for consumption by people with [[gluten-related disorders]], such as [[celiac disease]], [[non-celiac gluten sensitivity]], and [[wheat allergy]], among others.<ref name="Tovoli-2015">{{cite journal |last1=Tovoli |first1=F. |last2=Masi |first2=C. |last3=Guidetti |first3=E. |last4=Negrini |first4=G. |last5=Paterini |first5=P. |last6=Bolondi |first6=L. |title=Clinical and diagnostic aspects of gluten related disorders |journal=[[World Journal of Clinical Cases]]|volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=275–284 |date=March 16, 2015 |pmid=25789300 |pmc=4360499 |doi=10.12998/wjcc.v3.i3.275 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Nevertheless, some wheat allergy patients can tolerate rye or barley.<ref name="Pietzak-2012">{{cite journal |last=Pietzak |first=M. |title=Celiac Disease, Wheat Allergy, and Gluten Sensitivity |journal=[[Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition]]|volume=36 |issue=1 Supplement |pages=68S–75S |date=January 2012 |pmid=22237879 |doi=10.1177/0148607111426276}}</ref>

== Uses ==

=== Food and drink ===

Rye grain is refined into a [[flour]] high in [[gliadin]] but low in [[glutenin]] and rich in soluble fiber. [[Alkylresorcinol]]s are phenolic lipids present in high amounts in the bran layer (e.g. [[pericarp]], [[Testa (botany)|testa]] and [[aleurone]] layers) of wheat and rye (0.1–0.3% of dry weight).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Suzuki |first1=Yoshikatsu |last2=Esumi |first2=Yasuaki |last3=Yamaguchi |first3=Isamu |date=1999 |title=Structures of 5-alkylresorcinol-related analogues in rye |journal= [[Phytochemistry (journal)|Phytochemistry]] |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=281–289 |doi=10.1016/S0031-9422(99)00196-X|bibcode=1999PChem..52..281S }}</ref> [[Rye bread]], including [[pumpernickel]], is made using rye flour and is a widely eaten food in Northern and Eastern Europe.<ref>{{cite web |title=Graansoorten: Rugern |language=Dutch |trans-title=Grains: Rye |url=http://www.bakkerijmuseum.nl/kalwiblo/index.php?t=2&h=5&s=8#Minderwaardig |access-date=July 21, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181113134555/http://www.bakkerijwiki.nl/index.php?t=2&h=5&s=8#Minderwaardig |archive-date=November 13, 2018 |website=Bakkerij Museum}}</ref><ref name="Prättälä-2000">{{cite journal |last1=Prättälä |first1=Ritva |last2=Helasoja |first2=Ville |last3=Mykkänen |first3=Hannu |title=The consumption of rye bread and white bread as dimensions of health lifestyles in Finland |journal=[[Public Health Nutrition]] |date=2000 |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=813–819 |doi=10.1079/PHN2000120 |pmid=11415489 |doi-access=free}}</ref> In Scandinavia, rye is widely used to make [[crispbread]] ({{lang|sv|Knäckebröd}}); in the Middle Ages it was a [[staple food]] in the region, and it remains popular in the 21st century.<ref name="DagensNyheter-2016">{{cite news |title=Tuggmotstånd |language=sv |trans-title=Tough to chew |work=[[Dagens Nyheter]] |date=2016-05-03 |url=https://www.dn.se/mat-dryck/reportage/tuggmotstand/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503231014/https://www.dn.se/mat-dryck/reportage/tuggmotstand/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=2016-05-03  |access-date=2022-08-09 }}</ref>

Rye grain is used to make alcoholic drinks, such as [[rye whiskey]] and [[rye beer]].<ref name="PlantVillage"/> The traditional cloudy and sweet-sour low-alcohol beverage [[kvass]] is fermented from rye bread or rye flour and malt.<ref name="Hornsey-2012">{{Cite book |last=Hornsey |first=Ian Spencer |date=2012 |title=Alcohol and its Role in the Evolution of Human Society |publisher=[[Royal Society of Chemistry]] |isbn=978-1-84973-161-4 |pages=296–300}}</ref>

<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=200 heights=180>
Oval rye pumpkin bread 2024-03-10 08.jpg|Rye bread
Naturaplan Bio Pumpernickel.png|[[Pumpernickel]]
IKEA knäckebröd.JPG|Swedish rye [[crispbread]] ({{lang|sv|Knäckebröd}})
File:Sultsina.png|[[Sultsina]], a traditional [[Karelia]]n dish made of unleavened rye dough and a [[farina (food)|farina]] filling
Old Overholt Rye Whiskey bottle and tumbler.jpg|Rye whiskey
Terrapin Brewing Co. Rye Squared Imperial Pale Ale.jpg|Rye beer
</gallery>

=== Other uses ===

Rye is a useful [[forage]] crop in cool climates; it grows vigorously and provides plentiful [[fodder]] for grazing animals, or [[green manure]] to improve the soil.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.uwyo.edu/plantsciences/uwplant/forages/small-grains/rye.html |title=Forage Identification: Rye |date=September 26, 2017 |website=[[University of Wyoming]]: Department of Plant Sciences |access-date=September 26, 2017 |archive-date=August 18, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170818200843/http://www.uwyo.edu/plantsciences/uwplant/forages/small-grains/rye.html |url-status=live}}</ref> It forms a good [[cover crop]] in winter with its rapid growth and deep roots.<ref>{{cite web |title=Winter Rye: A Reliable Cover Crop |url=https://www.uvm.edu/vtvegandberry/factsheets/winterrye.html |publisher=[[University of Vermont]] |access-date=4 May 2024}}</ref>

Rye straw is used as [[bedding (animals)|livestock bedding]], despite the risk of ergot poisoning.<ref>{{cite web |title=Use caution when using rye straw for bedding |url=https://news.ca.uky.edu/article/use-caution-when-using-rye-straw-bedding |publisher=Martin-Gatton College of Agriculture, Food and Environment |access-date=4 May 2024 |date=7 June 2016}}</ref> It is used on a small scale to make [[craft]]s such as [[corn dolly|corn dollies]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions - Straw |url=https://www.strawcraftsmen.co.uk/faq_straw.php |website=Straw Craftsmen |access-date=4 May 2024}}</ref> More recently it has found uses as a raw material for bioconversion to products such as the sweetener [[xylitol]].<ref name="Vallejos-2017">{{cite book |last1=Vallejos |first1=María E. |last2=Area |first2=María C. |title=Food Bioconversion |chapter=Xylitol as Bioproduct From the Agro and Forest Biorefinery |publisher=Elsevier |date=2017 |isbn=978-0-12-811413-1 |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-811413-1.00012-7 |pages=411–432}}</ref>

Rye flour is mixed with linseed oil and iron oxide to make traditional [[Falun red]] paint, widely used as a house paint in Sweden.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.colouredearthpigments.co.uk/guides/swedish-red-paint-falu-rod/ |title=Swedish Red Paint - Falu Röd |access-date=March 25, 2021 |archive-date=September 25, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925105652/https://www.colouredearthpigments.co.uk/guides/swedish-red-paint-falu-rod/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Production of hybrids ===

[[File:Wheat, rye, triticale montage.jpg|thumb|Grains of [[wheat]], rye, and their hybrid, [[triticale]]. Triticale is significantly larger than wheat.]]

Plant breeders, starting in the 19th century in Germany and Scotland,<ref>{{cite web |title=Triticale |url=https://dhcrop.bsmrau.net/triticale-2/ |publisher=Digital Herbarium of Crop Plants Establishment of Digital Herbarium and Herbal museum for Crop plant by Department of Crop Botany, BSMRAU |access-date=4 May 2024}}</ref> but mainly from the 1950s, worked to develop a hybrid cereal with the best qualities of wheat and rye, now called [[triticale]]. Modern triticales are [[hexaploid]] with six sets of chromosomes; they are used to produce millions of tons of cereal annually.<ref name="Faccini-2023">{{cite journal |last1=Faccini |first1=Nadia |last2=Morcia |first2=Caterina |last3=Terzi |first3=Valeria |last4=Rizza |first4=Fulvia | last5=Badeck |first5=Franz-Werner |title=Triticale in Italy |journal=[[Biology (journal)|Biology]] |volume=12 |issue=10 |date=2023-10-04 |pmid=37887018 |pmc=10603945 |doi=10.3390/biology12101308 |doi-access=free |page=1308}}</ref>

[[Varieties of rye]] hold much genetic diversity,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ribeiro |first1=Miguel |last2=Seabra |first2=Luís |last3=Ramos |first3=António |last4=Santos |first4=Sofia |last5=Pinto-Carnide |first5=Olinda |last6=Carvalho |first6=Carlos |last7=Igrejas |first7=Gilberto |date=April 1, 2012 |title=Polymorphism of the storage proteins in Portuguese rye (''Secale cereale'' L.) populations |journal=[[Hereditas]] |volume=149 |issue=2 |pages=72–84 |doi=10.1111/j.1601-5223.2012.02239.x |issn=1601-5223 |pmid=22568702 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bauer |first1=Eva |last2=Schmutzer |first2=Thomas |last3=Barilar |first3=Ivan |last4=Mascher |first4=Martin |last5=Gundlach |first5=Heidrun |last6=Martis |first6=Mihaela M. |last7=Twardziok |first7=Sven O. |last8=Hackauf |first8=Bernd |last9=Gordillo |first9=Andres |display-authors=5 |date=2017-03-01 |title=Towards a whole-genome sequence for rye (''Secale cereale'' L.) |journal=[[The Plant Journal]] |volume=89 |issue=5 |pages=853–869 |doi=10.1111/tpj.13436 |issn=1365-313X |pmid=27888547 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Rabanus-Wallace-2021" >{{cite book |year=2021 |publisher=[[Springer Nature]] |last1=Rabanus-Wallace |first1=M. |last2=Stein |first2=Nils |pages=85–100 |isbn=978-3-030-83383-1 |title=The Rye Genome }} which cites {{cite journal |issue=4 |publisher=[[Nature Portfolio]] |year=2021 |last1=Li |first1=Guangwei |last2=Wang |first2=Lijian |last3=Yang |first3=Jianping |last4=He |first4=Hang |last5=Jin |first5=Huaibing |last6=Li |first6=Xuming |last7=Ren |first7=Tianheng |last8=Ren |first8=Zhenglong |display-authors=3 |pages=574–584 |volume=53 |journal=[[Nature Genetics]] |issn=1061-4036 |s2cid=232298036 |doi=10.1038/s41588-021-00808-z |title=A high-quality genome assembly highlights rye genomic characteristics and agronomically important genes |pmid=33737755 |pmc=8035075 }}</ref> which can be used to improve other crops such as wheat. For example, the pollination abilities of wheat can be improved by the addition of the rye chromosome 4R; this increases the size of the wheat [[anther]] and the amount of pollen.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nguyen |first1=Vy |last2=Fleury |first2=Delphine |last3=Timmins |first3=Andy |last4=Laga |first4=Hamid |last5=Hayden |first5=Matthew |last6=Mather |first6=Diane |last7=Okada |first7=Takashi |date=February 26, 2015 |title=Addition of rye chromosome 4R to wheat increases anther length and pollen grain number |journal=[[Theoretical and Applied Genetics]] |volume=128 |issue=5 |pages=953–964 |doi=10.1007/s00122-015-2482-4 |issn=0040-5752 |pmid=25716820 |s2cid=16421403}}</ref> The {{Vanchor|1R}} chromosome is the source of many [[crop disease resistance gene]]s.<ref name="Herrera-2017"/> Varieties such as Petkus, Insave, Amigo, and Imperial have donated 1R-originating resistance to wheat.<ref name="Herrera-2017"> {{cite journal |last1=Herrera  |first1=Leonardo |last2=Gustavsson |first2=Larisa |last3=Åhman  |first3=Inger |year=2017 |issue=1 |pages=1–9 |volume=154 |publisher=[[BioMed Central]] |issn=1601-5223 |journal=[[Hereditas]] |doi=10.1186/s41065-017-0033-5 |title=A systematic review of rye (''Secale cereale'' L.) as a source of resistance to pathogens and pests in wheat (''Triticum aestivum'' L.) |pmid=28559761 |pmc=5445327 |doi-access=free}}</ref> [[AC Hazlet rye]] is a medium-sized winter rye with resistance to both [[lodging (agriculture)|lodging]] and [[shattering (agriculture)|shattering]].<ref>{{cite web |title=AC Hazlet |publisher=SeCAN |url=https://www.secan.com/en/data/files/_workspace/secan_searchvalues/R016/AC%20Hazlet%20July%202007%20Gene.pdf |accessdate=2014-11-28 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304080402/https://www.secan.com/en/data/files/_workspace/secan_searchvalues/R016/AC%20Hazlet%20July%202007%20Gene.pdf |archivedate=2016-03-04 }}</ref> Rye was the [[gene donor]] of ''[[Sr31 (gene)|Sr31]]'' – a [[stem rust resistance gene]] – introgressed into wheat.<ref name="Ellis-2014">{{cite journal |last1=Ellis |first1=Jeffrey G. |last2=Lagudah |first2=Evans S. |last3=Spielmeyer |first3=Wolfgang |last4=Dodds |first4=Peter N. |title=The past, present and future of breeding rust resistant wheat |journal=Frontiers in Plant Science |volume=5 |date=2014-11-24 |page=641 |pmid=25505474 |pmc=4241819 |doi=10.3389/fpls.2014.00641 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

The characteristics of ''S. cereale'' have been combined with another perennial rye, ''[[Secale montanum|S. montanum]]'', to produce ''[[Secale cereanum|S. cereanum]]'', which has the beneficial characteristics of each. The hybrid rye can be grown in harsh environments and on poor soil. It provides improved forage with digestible fiber and protein.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sipos |first1=Tamás |last2=Halász |first2=Erika |date=April 25, 2007 |title=The role of perennial rye (''Secale cereale'' × ''S. montanum'') in sustainable agriculture |journal=Cereal Research Communications |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=1073–1075 |doi=10.1556/CRC.35.2007.2.227}}</ref>

== In human culture ==

{{further|Feldgeister}}

[[File:Roggenwolf and Rye Sheaves in coat of arms.jpg|thumb|upright|A ''Roggenwolf'', a carnivorous spirit of the rye fields, with sheaves of harvested rye, on the coat of arms of the Bartensleben family ]]

In European folklore, the ''Roggenwolf'' ("rye wolf") is a carnivorous corn demon or ''[[Feldgeister|Feldgeist]]'', a field spirit shaped like a [[wolf]].<ref name="Golther-2011">{{cite book |last=Golther |first=Wolfgang |year=2011 |title=Germanische Mythologie: Vollständige Ausgabe |language=German |trans-title=Germanic Mythology |edition=Complete |publisher=Marix-Verlag |location=Wiesbaden |isbn=978-3-937715-38-4 |page=200}}</ref> The ''Roggenwolf'' steals children and feeds on them.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mannhardt |first=Wilhelm |author-link=Wilhelm Mannhardt |year=2005 |title=Wald- und Feldkulte: Band II |language=German |trans-title=Forest and Field Cults: Volume II |publisher=Elibron Classics |isbn=1-4212-4778-X |page=319}}</ref> The last grain heads are often left at their place as a sacrifice for the agricultural spirits.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dahn |first1=Felix |author-link=Felix Dahn |last2=Dahn |first2=Therese |year=2010 |title=Germanische Götter- und Heldensagen |language=German |trans-title=Germanic God- and Hero-tales |publisher=Marix-Verlag |location=[[Wiesbaden]] |isbn=978-3-937715-39-1 |page=171}}</ref> 

In contrast, the ''Roggenmuhme'' or ''Roggenmutter'' ("rye aunt" or "rye mother") is an anthropomorphic female corn demon with fiery fingers. Her bosoms are filled with tar and may end in tips of iron. Her bosoms are also long, and as such must be thrown over her shoulders when she runs. The ''Roggenmuhme'' is completely black or white, and in her hand she has a birch or whip from which lightning sparks. She can change herself into different animals, such as snakes, turtles, and frogs.<ref name="Mannhardt-2014">{{cite book |last=Mannhardt |first=Wilhelm |author-link=Wilhelm Mannhardt |year=2014 |title=Die Korndämonen: Beitrag zur germanischen Sittenkunde |language=German |trans-title=The Corn Spirits: Contribution to Germanic Moral Studies |publisher=Bremen University Press |location=[[Bremen]] |isbn=978-3-95562-798-0 |page=20}}</ref>

The classical scholar [[Carl A. P. Ruck]] writes that the ''Roggenmutter'' was believed to go through the fields, rustling like the wind, with a pack of rye wolves running after her. They spread ergot through the sheaves of harvested rye. According to Ruck, they then lured children into the fields to nurse on the infected grains "like the iron teats of the ''Roggenmutter''".<ref name="Ruck-2019"/> The enlarged reddish ergot-infected grains were known as ''Wulfzähne'' (wolf teeth).<ref name="Ruck-2019">{{cite journal |last=Ruck |first=Carl |authorlink=Carl A. P. Ruck |year=2019 |title=Persia, Haoma and the Greek Mysteries |journal=Sexus Journal |volume=4 |issue=11 |pages=991–1034 |url=https://open.bu.edu/bitstream/handle/2144/42390/Ruck-Haoma-Greek-Mystery-SexuS-Winter-2019-V-4-No-11%20%281%29.pdf?sequence=1}}</ref>{{-}}

== References ==

{{reflist}}

== External links ==

{{unimelb|Secale.html}}

{{Cereals}}
{{Agriculture country lists|state=collapsed}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q12099}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Rye|Rye]]
[[Category:Cereals]]
[[Category:Plants described in 1753]]
[[Category:Pooideae]]
[[Category:Staple foods]]