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A 2017 review of [[clinical trials]] found that drinking coffee is generally safe within usual levels of intake and is more likely to improve health outcomes than to cause harm at doses of 3 or 4 cups of coffee daily. Exceptions include possible increased risk in women having [[bone fracture]]s, and a possible increased risk in pregnant women of [[Miscarriage|fetal loss]] or [[Small for gestational age|decreased birth weight]].<ref name="poole">{{cite journal |vauthors=Poole R, Kennedy OJ, Roderick P, Fallowfield JA, Hayes PC, Parkes J |date=November 2017 |title=Coffee consumption and health: umbrella review of meta-analyses of multiple health outcomes |journal=BMJ |volume=359 |pages=j5024 |doi=10.1136/bmj.j5024 |pmc=5696634 |pmid=29167102}}{{open access}}</ref> Results were complicated by poor study quality, and differences in age, gender, health status, and serving size.<ref name="poole" />
#REDIRECT [[Coffee#Health effects]]


== Digestion ==
{{Redirect category shell|1=
A 1999 review found that coffee does not cause [[indigestion]], but may promote [[gastrointestinal reflux]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Boekema |first1=P. J. |last2=Samsom |first2=M. |last3=van Berge Henegouwen |first3=G. P. |last4=Smout |first4=A. J. |date=1999 |title=Coffee and gastrointestinal function: facts and fiction. A review |journal=Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology. Supplement |volume=34 |issue=230 |pages=35–39 |doi=10.1080/003655299750025525 |issn=0085-5928 |pmid=10499460}}</ref> Two reviews of clinical studies on people recovering from [[abdominal surgery|abdominal]], [[colorectal]], and [[gynecology|gynecological]] surgery found that coffee consumption was safe and effective for enhancing postoperative [[gastrointestinal function]].<ref name="Cornwall">{{cite journal |last1=Cornwall |first1=Hannah L. |last2=Edwards |first2=Ben A. |last3=Curran |first3=John F. |last4=Boyce |first4=Stephen |year=2019 |title=Coffee to go? The effect of coffee on resolution of ileus following abdominal surgery: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials |journal=Clinical Nutrition |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=30258–4 |doi=10.1016/j.clnu.2019.06.003 |issn=0261-5614 |pmid=31253438 |s2cid=195766007}}</ref><ref name="Eamud">{{cite journal |last1=Eamudomkarn |first1=Nuntasiri |last2=Kietpeerakool |first2=Chumnan |last3=Kaewrudee |first3=Srinaree |last4=Jampathong |first4=Nampet |last5=Ngamjarus |first5=Chetta |last6=Lumbiganon |first6=Pisake |date=26 November 2018 |title=Effect of postoperative coffee consumption on gastrointestinal function after abdominal surgery: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=8 |issue=1 |page=17349 |bibcode=2018NatSR...817349E |doi=10.1038/s41598-018-35752-2 |issn=2045-2322 |pmc=6255780 |pmid=30478433}}</ref>
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{{R to section}}
== Mortality ==
}}
In 2012, the [[National Institutes of Health]]–[[AARP]] Diet and Health Study found that higher coffee consumption was associated with lower risk of death, and that those who drank any coffee lived longer than those who did not. However the authors noted, "whether this was a causal or associational finding cannot be determined from our data."<ref name="NEJM">{{Cite journal |last1=Freedman |first1=N. D. |last2=Park |first2=Y. |last3=Abnet |first3=C. C. |last4=Hollenbeck |first4=A. R. |last5=Sinha |first5=R. |year=2012 |title=Association of Coffee Drinking with Total and Cause-Specific Mortality |journal=New England Journal of Medicine |volume=366 |issue=20 |pages=1891–1904 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa1112010 |pmc=3439152 |pmid=22591295}}</ref> A 2014 [[meta-analysis]] found that coffee consumption (4 cups/day) was inversely associated with all-cause mortality (a 16% lower risk), as well as [[cardiovascular disease]] mortality specifically (a 21% lower risk from drinking 3 cups/day), but not with cancer mortality<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Crippa |first1=Alessio |last2=Discacciati |first2=Andrea |last3=Larsson |first3=Susanna C. |author-link3=Susanna Larsson |last4=Wolk |first4=Alicja |last5=Orsini |first5=Nicola |date=15 October 2014 |title=Coffee consumption and mortality from all causes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer: a dose-response meta-analysis |journal=American Journal of Epidemiology |volume=180 |issue=8 |pages=763–75 |doi=10.1093/aje/kwu194 |pmid=25156996 |doi-access=free}}</ref> with exception being oral cancer mortality.<ref name="HildebrandPatel2012">{{cite journal |last1=Hildebrand |first1=J. S. |last2=Patel |first2=A. V. |last3=McCullough |first3=M. L. |last4=Gaudet |first4=M. M. |last5=Chen |first5=A. Y. |last6=Hayes |first6=R. B. |last7=Gapstur |first7=S. M. |year=2012 |title=Coffee, Tea, and Fatal Oral/Pharyngeal Cancer in a Large Prospective US Cohort |journal=American Journal of Epidemiology |volume=177 |issue=1 |pages=50–58 |doi=10.1093/aje/kws222 |issn=0002-9262 |pmid=23230042 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
Additional meta-analyses corroborated these findings, showing that higher coffee consumption (2–4 cups per day) was associated with a reduced risk of death by all disease causes.<ref name="bjn">{{cite journal |last1=Je |first1=Youjin |last2=Giovannucci |first2=Edward |year=2014 |title=Coffee consumption and total mortality: a meta-analysis of twenty prospective cohort studies |url=https://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:41392106 |url-status=live |journal=British Journal of Nutrition |volume=111 |issue=7 |pages=1162–73 |doi=10.1017/S0007114513003814 |pmid=24279995 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831023057/https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/41392106 |archive-date=31 August 2022 |access-date=23 February 2022 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="phn">{{cite journal |last1=Zhao |first1=Y. |last2=Wu |first2=K. |last3=Zheng |first3=J. |last4=Zuo |first4=R. |last5=Li |first5=D. |year=2015 |title=Association of coffee drinking with all-cause mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=Public Health Nutrition |volume=18 |issue=7 |pages=1282–91 |doi=10.1017/S1368980014001438 |pmid=25089347 |doi-access=free}}</ref> An association of coffee drinking with reduced risk for death from various sources was confirmed by a widely cited prospective cohort study of ten European countries in 2017.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gunter |first1=Marc J. |last2=Murphy |first2=Neil |last3=Cross |first3=Amanda J. |last4=Dossus |first4=Laure |last5=Dartois |first5=Laureen |last6=Fagherazzi |first6=Guy |last7=Kaaks |first7=Rudolf |last8=Kühn |first8=Tilman |last9=Boeing |first9=Heiner |date=11 July 2017 |title=Coffee Drinking and Mortality in 10 European Countries |journal=Annals of Internal Medicine |language=en |volume=167 |issue=4 |pages=236–247 |doi=10.7326/M16-2945 |issn=0003-4819 |pmc=5788283 |pmid=28693038}}</ref>

==== Cardiovascular disease ====
Moderate coffee consumption is not a risk factor for [[coronary heart disease]].<ref name="pmid18707777">{{cite journal |last1=Wu |first1=Jiang-nan |last2=Ho |first2=Suzanne C. |last3=Zhou |first3=Chun |last4=Ling |first4=Wen-hua |last5=Chen |first5=Wei-qing |last6=Wang |first6=Cui-ling |last7=Chen |first7=Yu-ming |year=2009 |title=Coffee consumption and risk of coronary heart diseases: A meta-analysis of 21 prospective cohort studies |journal=International Journal of Cardiology |volume=137 |issue=3 |pages=216–25 |doi=10.1016/j.ijcard.2008.06.051 |pmid=18707777}}</ref> A 2012 meta-analysis concluded that people who drank moderate amounts of coffee had a lower rate of heart failure, with the biggest effect found for those who drank more than four cups a day.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mostofsky |first1=E. |last2=Rice |first2=M. S. |last3=Levitan |first3=E. B. |last4=Mittleman |first4=M. A. |year=2012 |title=Habitual Coffee Consumption and Risk of Heart Failure: A Dose-Response Meta-Analysis |journal=Circulation: Heart Failure |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=401–05 |doi=10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.112.967299 |pmc=3425948 |pmid=22740040}}</ref> A 2014 meta-analysis concluded that [[cardiovascular disease]], such as coronary artery disease and stroke, is less likely with three to five cups of non-decaffeinated coffee per day, but more likely with over five cups per day.<ref name="Ding2014">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ding M, Bhupathiraju SN, Satija A, van Dam RM, Hu FB |date=February 2014 |title=Long-term coffee consumption and risk of cardiovascular disease: a systematic review and a dose-response meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies |journal=Circulation |volume=129 |issue=6 |pages=643–59 |doi=10.1161/circulationaha.113.005925 |pmc=3945962 |pmid=24201300}}</ref> A 2016 meta-analysis showed that coffee consumption was associated with a reduced risk of death in patients who have had a [[myocardial infarction]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=OI |last2=Allgar |first2=V |last3=Wong |first3=K-Y K |year=2016 |title=Coffee reduces death after myocardial infarction: a meta-analysis |url=https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/102280/1/Coffee_reduces_death_risk_after_acute_myocardial_infarction_a_meta_analysis_final_edition_1.docx |url-status=live |journal=Coronary Artery Disease |volume=27 |issue=7 |pages=566–72 |doi=10.1097/MCA.0000000000000397 |pmid=27315099 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220402171534/https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/102280/1/Coffee_reduces_death_risk_after_acute_myocardial_infarction_a_meta_analysis_final_edition_1.docx |archive-date=2 April 2022 |access-date=23 February 2022 |s2cid=7980392}}</ref>

The effect of no or moderate daily consumption of coffee on risk for developing [[hypertension]] has been assessed in several reviews during the 21st century. A 2019 review found that one to two cups consumed per day had no effect on hypertension risk, whereas drinking three or more cups per day reduced the risk,<ref name="delia">{{cite journal |last1=D’Elia |first1=Lanfranco |last2=La Fata |first2=Ersilia |last3=Galletti |first3=Ferruccio |last4=Scalfi |first4=Luca |last5=Strazzullo |first5=Pasquale |date=February 2019 |title=Coffee consumption and risk of hypertension: a dose–response meta-analysis of prospective studies |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00394-017-1591-z |url-status=live |journal=European Journal of Nutrition |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=271–280 |doi=10.1007/s00394-017-1591-z |issn=1436-6207 |pmid=29222637 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201106061545/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00394-017-1591-z |archive-date=6 November 2020 |access-date=29 September 2020 |s2cid=7264285}}</ref> a finding in agreement with a 2017 analysis which showed a 9% lower risk of hypertension with long-term consumption of up to seven cups of coffee per day.<ref name="grosso">{{cite journal |last1=Grosso |first1=G |last2=Micek |first2=A |last3=Godos |first3=J |last4=Pajak |first4=A |last5=Sciacca |first5=S |last6=Bes-Rastrollo |first6=M |last7=Galvano |first7=F |last8=Martinez-Gonzalez |first8=MA |date=17 August 2017 |title=Long-term coffee consumption is associated with decreased incidence of new-onset hypertension: A dose-response meta-analysis. |journal=Nutrients |volume=9 |issue=8 |page=890 |doi=10.3390/nu9080890 |issn=2072-6643 |pmc=5579683 |pmid=28817085 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Another review in 2018 found that the risk of hypertension was reduced by 2% with each one cup per day increment of coffee consumption up to 8 cups per day, compared with people who did not consume any coffee.<ref name="xie2018">{{cite journal |last1=Xie |first1=Chen |last2=Cui |first2=Lingling |last3=Zhu |first3=Jicun |last4=Wang |first4=Kehui |last5=Sun |first5=Nan |last6=Sun |first6=Changqing |date=4 January 2018 |title=Coffee consumption and risk of hypertension: a systematic review and dose–response meta-analysis of cohort studies |journal=Journal of Human Hypertension |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=83–93 |doi=10.1038/s41371-017-0007-0 |issn=0950-9240 |pmid=29302055 |s2cid=3515374}}</ref> By contrast, a 2011 review had found that drinking one to three cups of coffee per day may pose a slightly increased risk of developing hypertension.<ref name="zhang">{{cite journal |vauthors=Zhang Z, Hu G, Caballero B, Appel L, Chen L |date=June 2011 |title=Habitual coffee consumption and risk of hypertension: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective observational studies |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=93 |issue=6 |pages=1212–19 |doi=10.3945/ajcn.110.004044 |pmid=21450934 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

== Mental health ==
The UK [[National Health Service]] advises that avoiding coffee may reduce [[anxiety]].<ref name="nhs2019">{{cite web |date=19 December 2018 |title=Self-help: Generalised anxiety disorder in adults |url=https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/generalised-anxiety-disorder/self-help/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190127152609/https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/generalised-anxiety-disorder/self-help/ |archive-date=27 January 2019 |access-date=27 January 2019 |publisher=National Health Service, UK}}</ref> Caffeine, the major active ingredient in coffee, is associated with anxiety.<ref name="Winston_2005">{{cite journal |vauthors=Winston AP |year=2005 |title=Neuropsychiatric effects of caffeine |journal=Advances in Psychiatric Treatment |volume=11 |issue=6 |pages=432–439 |doi=10.1192/apt.11.6.432 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Vilarim MM, Rocha Araujo DM, Nardi AE |date=August 2011 |title=Caffeine challenge test and panic disorder: a systematic literature review |journal=Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics |volume=11 |issue=8 |pages=1185–95 |doi=10.1586/ern.11.83 |pmid=21797659 |s2cid=5364016}}</ref> At high doses, typically greater than 300&nbsp;mg, caffeine can both cause and worsen anxiety.<ref name="pmid12204388">{{cite journal |vauthors=Smith A |date=September 2002 |title=Effects of caffeine on human behavior |journal=Food and Chemical Toxicology |volume=40 |issue=9 |pages=1243–55 |doi=10.1016/S0278-6915(02)00096-0 |pmid=12204388}}</ref> For some people, discontinuing caffeine use can significantly reduce anxiety.<ref name="pmid2727208">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bruce MS, Lader M |date=February 1989 |title=Caffeine abstention in the management of anxiety disorders |journal=Psychological Medicine |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=211–4 |doi=10.1017/S003329170001117X |pmid=2727208 |s2cid=45368729}}</ref> [[Caffeine-induced anxiety disorder]] is a subclass of substance- or medication-induced [[anxiety disorder]].<ref name="Addicott">{{cite journal |last=Addicott |first=Merideth A. |date=28 May 2014 |title=Caffeine Use Disorder: A Review of the Evidence and Future Implications |journal=Current Addiction Reports |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=186–192 |doi=10.1007/s40429-014-0024-9 |issn=2196-2952 |pmc=4115451 |pmid=25089257}}</ref> Populations that may be most impacted by caffeine consumption are adolescents and those already suffering anxiety disorders.<ref name="O’Neill2016">{{cite journal |last1=O’Neill |first1=Casey E. |last2=Newsom |first2=Ryan J. |last3=Stafford |first3=Jacob |last4=Scott |first4=Talia |last5=Archuleta |first5=Solana |last6=Levis |first6=Sophia C. |last7=Spencer |first7=Robert L. |last8=Campeau |first8=Serge |last9=Bachtell |first9=Ryan K. |date=1 January 2016 |title=Adolescent caffeine consumption increases adulthood anxiety-related behavior and modifies neuroendocrine signaling |journal=Psychoneuroendocrinology |volume=67 |pages=40–50 |doi=10.1016/j.psyneuen.2016.01.030 |issn=0306-4530 |pmc=4808446 |pmid=26874560}}</ref> Preliminary research indicated the possibility of a beneficial relationship between coffee intake and reduced depression.<ref name="poole" /><ref name="Wang_2016">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wang L, Shen X, Wu Y, Zhang D |date=March 2016 |title=Coffee and caffeine consumption and depression: A meta-analysis of observational studies |journal=The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=228–42 |doi=10.1177/0004867415603131 |pmid=26339067 |s2cid=23377304}}</ref><ref name="Grosso_2016">{{cite journal |vauthors=Grosso G, Micek A, Castellano S, Pajak A, Galvano F |date=January 2016 |title=Coffee, tea, caffeine and risk of depression: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of observational studies |journal=Molecular Nutrition and Food Research |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=223–34 |doi=10.1002/mnfr.201500620 |pmid=26518745}}</ref> Long-term preliminary research, including assessment of symptoms for [[dementia]] and [[cognitive impairment]], was inconclusive for coffee having an effect in the elderly, mainly due to the poor quality of the studies.<ref name="poole" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Panza |first1=Francesco |last2=Solfrizzi |first2=V. |last3=Barulli |first3=M. R. |last4=Bonfiglio |first4=C. |last5=Guerra |first5=V. |last6=Osella |first6=A. |last7=Seripa |first7=D. |last8=Sabbà |first8=C. |last9=Pilotto |first9=A. |last10=Logroscino |first10=G. |year=2015 |title=Coffee, tea, and caffeine consumption and prevention of late-life cognitive decline and dementia: a systematic review |journal=J Nutr Health Aging |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=313–28 |doi=10.1007/s12603-014-0563-8 |pmid=25732217 |s2cid=8376733}}</ref>

== Parkinson's disease ==
Meta-analyses have consistently found that long-term coffee consumption is associated with a lower risk of [[Parkinson's disease]].<ref name="poole" />

== Type II diabetes ==
In a [[systematic review]] and [[meta-analysis]] of 28 prospective observational studies, representing over one million participants, every additional cup of caffeinated and decaffeinated coffee consumed in a day was associated, respectively, with a 9% and 6% lower risk of [[type 2 diabetes]].<ref name="Ding2014-24459154">{{cite journal |last1=Ding |first1=Ming |last2=Bhupathiraju |first2=Shilpa N |last3=Chen |first3=Mu |last4=van Dam |first4=Rob M |last5=Hu |first5=Frank B |date=February 2014 |title=Caffeinated and Decaffeinated Coffee Consumption and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes: A Systematic Review and a Dose-Response Meta-analysis |journal=Diabetes Care |type=Systematic Review & Meta-Analysis |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=569–86 |doi=10.2337/dc13-1203 |pmc=3898757 |pmid=24459154}}</ref>

== Cancer ==
Research on the effects of coffee consumption on cancer risk generally has indicated no effect<ref name="xie">{{cite journal |last1=Xie |first1=F. |last2=Wang |first2=D. |last3=Huang |first3=Z. |last4=Guo |first4=Y. |year=2014 |title=Coffee consumption and risk of gastric cancer: a large updated meta-analysis of prospective studies |journal=Nutrients |volume=6 |issue=9 |pages=3734–46 |doi=10.3390/nu6093734 |pmc=4179186 |pmid=25237829 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="akter">{{cite journal |last1=Akter |first1=Shamima |last2=Kashino |first2=Ikuko |last3=Mizoue |first3=Tetsuya |last4=Matsuo |first4=Keitaro |last5=Ito |first5=Hidemi |last6=Wakai |first6=Kenji |last7=Nagata |first7=Chisato |last8=Nakayama |first8=Tomio |last9=Sadakane |first9=Atsuko |last10=Tanaka |first10=Keitaro |last11=Tamakoshi |first11=Akiko |last12=Sugawara |first12=Yumi |last13=Sawada |first13=Norie |last14=Inoue |first14=Manami |last15=Tsugane |first15=Shoichiro |date=12 May 2016 |title=Coffee drinking and colorectal cancer risk: an evaluation based on a systematic review and meta-analysis among the Japanese population |url=https://academic.oup.com/jjco/article/46/8/781/1751204 |url-status=live |journal=Japanese Journal of Clinical Oncology |volume=46 |issue=8 |pages=781–787 |doi=10.1093/jjco/hyw059 |issn=0368-2811 |pmid=27174958 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190929053050/https://academic.oup.com/jjco/article/46/8/781/1751204 |archive-date=29 September 2019 |access-date=24 September 2019 |doi-access=free |last16=Sasazuki |first16=Shizuka}}</ref> or a slightly lower risk of cancer, particularly in the [[liver]].<ref name="bravi">{{cite journal |last1=Bravi |first1=Francesca |last2=Tavani |first2=Alessandra |last3=Bosetti |first3=Cristina |last4=Boffetta |first4=Paolo |last5=La Vecchia |first5=Carlo |year=2017 |title=Coffee and the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma and chronic liver disease |journal=European Journal of Cancer Prevention |volume=26 |issue=5 |pages=368–377 |doi=10.1097/cej.0000000000000252 |issn=0959-8278 |pmid=27111112 |s2cid=25243023}}</ref><ref name="Zhao">{{cite journal |last1=Zhao |first1=Long-Gang |last2=Li |first2=Zhuo-Ying |last3=Feng |first3=Guo-Shan |last4=Ji |first4=Xiao-Wei |last5=Tan |first5=Yu-Ting |last6=Li |first6=Hong-Lan |last7=Gunter |first7=Marc J. |last8=Xiang |first8=Yong-Bing |date=5 February 2020 |title=Coffee drinking and cancer risk: an umbrella review of meta-analyses of observational studies |journal=BMC Cancer |volume=20 |issue=1 |page=101 |doi=10.1186/s12885-020-6561-9 |issn=1471-2407 |pmc=7003434 |pmid=32024485}}</ref>

== Liver disease ==
Preliminary evidence indicates that coffee consumption may be protective against the progression of [[liver disease]], although the possible mechanisms for such an effect remain unclear.<ref name="Wadhawan">{{cite journal |last1=Wadhawan |first1=M |last2=Anand |first2=AC |date=March 2016 |title=Coffee and liver disease |journal=Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hepatology |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=40–6 |doi=10.1016/j.jceh.2016.02.003 |pmc=4862107 |pmid=27194895}}</ref>

Revision as of 06:33, 1 September 2022

A 2017 review of clinical trials found that drinking coffee is generally safe within usual levels of intake and is more likely to improve health outcomes than to cause harm at doses of 3 or 4 cups of coffee daily. Exceptions include possible increased risk in women having bone fractures, and a possible increased risk in pregnant women of fetal loss or decreased birth weight.[1] Results were complicated by poor study quality, and differences in age, gender, health status, and serving size.[1]

Digestion

A 1999 review found that coffee does not cause indigestion, but may promote gastrointestinal reflux.[2] Two reviews of clinical studies on people recovering from abdominal, colorectal, and gynecological surgery found that coffee consumption was safe and effective for enhancing postoperative gastrointestinal function.[3][4]

Mortality

In 2012, the National Institutes of Health–AARP Diet and Health Study found that higher coffee consumption was associated with lower risk of death, and that those who drank any coffee lived longer than those who did not. However the authors noted, "whether this was a causal or associational finding cannot be determined from our data."[5] A 2014 meta-analysis found that coffee consumption (4 cups/day) was inversely associated with all-cause mortality (a 16% lower risk), as well as cardiovascular disease mortality specifically (a 21% lower risk from drinking 3 cups/day), but not with cancer mortality[6] with exception being oral cancer mortality.[7]

Additional meta-analyses corroborated these findings, showing that higher coffee consumption (2–4 cups per day) was associated with a reduced risk of death by all disease causes.[8][9] An association of coffee drinking with reduced risk for death from various sources was confirmed by a widely cited prospective cohort study of ten European countries in 2017.[10]

Cardiovascular disease

Moderate coffee consumption is not a risk factor for coronary heart disease.[11] A 2012 meta-analysis concluded that people who drank moderate amounts of coffee had a lower rate of heart failure, with the biggest effect found for those who drank more than four cups a day.[12] A 2014 meta-analysis concluded that cardiovascular disease, such as coronary artery disease and stroke, is less likely with three to five cups of non-decaffeinated coffee per day, but more likely with over five cups per day.[13] A 2016 meta-analysis showed that coffee consumption was associated with a reduced risk of death in patients who have had a myocardial infarction.[14]

The effect of no or moderate daily consumption of coffee on risk for developing hypertension has been assessed in several reviews during the 21st century. A 2019 review found that one to two cups consumed per day had no effect on hypertension risk, whereas drinking three or more cups per day reduced the risk,[15] a finding in agreement with a 2017 analysis which showed a 9% lower risk of hypertension with long-term consumption of up to seven cups of coffee per day.[16] Another review in 2018 found that the risk of hypertension was reduced by 2% with each one cup per day increment of coffee consumption up to 8 cups per day, compared with people who did not consume any coffee.[17] By contrast, a 2011 review had found that drinking one to three cups of coffee per day may pose a slightly increased risk of developing hypertension.[18]

Mental health

The UK National Health Service advises that avoiding coffee may reduce anxiety.[19] Caffeine, the major active ingredient in coffee, is associated with anxiety.[20][21] At high doses, typically greater than 300 mg, caffeine can both cause and worsen anxiety.[22] For some people, discontinuing caffeine use can significantly reduce anxiety.[23] Caffeine-induced anxiety disorder is a subclass of substance- or medication-induced anxiety disorder.[24] Populations that may be most impacted by caffeine consumption are adolescents and those already suffering anxiety disorders.[25] Preliminary research indicated the possibility of a beneficial relationship between coffee intake and reduced depression.[1][26][27] Long-term preliminary research, including assessment of symptoms for dementia and cognitive impairment, was inconclusive for coffee having an effect in the elderly, mainly due to the poor quality of the studies.[1][28]

Parkinson's disease

Meta-analyses have consistently found that long-term coffee consumption is associated with a lower risk of Parkinson's disease.[1]

Type II diabetes

In a systematic review and meta-analysis of 28 prospective observational studies, representing over one million participants, every additional cup of caffeinated and decaffeinated coffee consumed in a day was associated, respectively, with a 9% and 6% lower risk of type 2 diabetes.[29]

Cancer

Research on the effects of coffee consumption on cancer risk generally has indicated no effect[30][31] or a slightly lower risk of cancer, particularly in the liver.[32][33]

Liver disease

Preliminary evidence indicates that coffee consumption may be protective against the progression of liver disease, although the possible mechanisms for such an effect remain unclear.[34]

  1. ^ a b c d e Poole R, Kennedy OJ, Roderick P, Fallowfield JA, Hayes PC, Parkes J (November 2017). "Coffee consumption and health: umbrella review of meta-analyses of multiple health outcomes". BMJ. 359: j5024. doi:10.1136/bmj.j5024. PMC 5696634. PMID 29167102.Open access icon
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