Profession: Difference between revisions

Content deleted Content added

Inline

Revision as of 17:04, 8 July 2007

This article is about work professions. For religious profession, see Profession (religious).

A profession is defined as a vocation in which skill, based on theoretical knowledge acquired through higher education, is applied to the affairs of others in order to meet their needs. A profession is regulated by a professional body which sets examinations of competence, acts as licencing authority for practioners, and enforces adherence to an ethical code. Regulation enforced by statute distinguishes a profession from other occupations represented by trade groups who aspire to professional status for their members.^[1].

History

Classically, there were only three professions: Divinity, Medicine, and Law. The main milestones which mark an occupation being identified as a profession are:

It became a full-time occupation;
The first training school was established;
The first university school was established;
The first local association was established;
The first national association was established;
The codes of professional ethics were introduced;
State licencing laws were established.

The ranking of established professions in the United States based on the above milestones shows Medicine first, followed by Law, Dentistry, Civil Engineering, Architecture and Accounting. With the rise of technology and occupational specialization in the 19th century, other bodies began to claim professional status: Pharmacy, Teaching, Vetinary Medicine, Nursing, Librarianship, Optometry and Social Work, all of which could claim to be professions using these milestones by 1900^[2].

Just as some professions rise in status and power through various stages, so others may decline. This is characterized by the red cloaks of bishops giving way to the black cloaks of lawyers and then to the white cloaks of doctors^[3]. With the church having receded in its role in western society, the remaining classical professions (law and medicine) are both noted by many as requiring not just study to enter, but extensive study and accreditation above and beyond simply getting a university degree. Accordingly more recently-formalized disciplines, such as architecture, which now have equally-long periods of study associated with them, and which are becoming considered as their equal.^[4]

Characteristics of a profession

The list of characteristics that follows is extensive, but does not claim to include every characteristic that has ever been attributed to professions, nor do all of these features apply to every profession:

Skill based on theoretical knowledge: Professionals are assumed to have extensive theoretical knowledge (e.g. medicine, law, scripture or engineering0 and to possess skills based on that knowledge that they are able to apply in practise.
Professional association: Professions usually have professional bodies organized by their members, which are intended to enhance the status of their members and have carefully controlled entrance requirements.
Extensive period of education: The most prestigious professions usually require at least three years at university.
Testing of competence: Before being admitted to membership of a professional body, there is usually a requirement to pass prescribed examinations that are based on mainly theoretical knowledge.
Instituitional training: In addition to examinations, there is usually a requirement for a long period of institutionalised training where aspiring professionals acquire specified practical experience in some sort of trainee role before being recognized as a full member of a professional body.
Licenced practioners: Professions seek to establish a register or membership so that only those individuals so licenced are recognized.
Work autonomy: Professionals tend to retain control over their work, even when they are employed outside the profession in commercial or public organizations.
Code of professional conduct or ethics: Professional bodies usually have codes of conduct or ethics for their members and disciplinary procedures for those who infringe the rules.
Self-regulation: Professional bodies tend to insist that they should be self-regulating and independent from government.
Public service and altruism: The earning of fees for services rendered can be defended because they are provided in the public interest, e.g. the work of doctors contributes to public health.
Exclusion, monopoly and legal recognition: Professions tend to exclude those who have not met their requirements and joined the appropriate professional body.
Control of remuneration and advertising: Where levels of remuneration are determined by government, professional bodies are active in negotiating remuneration packages for their members. Some profession set standard scale fees, but goverment advocacy of competition means that these are no longer generally enforced.
High status and rewards: The most successful professions achieve high status and rewards for their members. Some of the factors included in this list contribute to such sucess.
Individual clients: Many professions have individual fee-paying clients. For example, in accountancy, "the profession" usually refers to accountants who have individual and corporate clients, rather than accountants who are employees of organizations.^[5].
Middle-class occupations: Tradionally many professions have been viewed as 'respectable' occupations for middle and upper classes.
Male-dominated: The highest status professions tend to have been male dominated. For example, the proportion of women in school-teaching has increased as its status has declined, and women are being admitted ot the priesthood now that its status has declined relative to other professions. Similar arguments apply to race: women, thnic groups and working-class people are no less disadvantaged in most professions than they are in society generally^[6].
Offer reassurance: Professionals are able to offer reassurance to their clients that although there appear to be problems, everything is normal or being dealt with properly, and this reassurance may be offered rather than solutions to particular problems. For example, sick people may be reassured that they will probably get better in a few days.
Ritual: Church ritual, and the Court procedure are obviously ritualistic.
Legitimacy: Professions ahve clear legal authority over some activities (e.g. certifying the insane) but are also seen as adding legitimacy to awide range of related activities.
Inaccessible body of knowledge: In some professions, the body of knowledge is relatively inaccessible to the uniitiated. Medicine and law are typically not school subjects and have seperate faculties and even seperate libaries at universities..
Indeterminacy of knowledge: Professional knowledge contains elements that escape being mastered and communicated inthe form of rules and can only be acquired through experience.
Mobility: The skill knowledge and authority of professionals belongs to the professionals as individuals, not the organizations for which they work. Professionals are therefore relatively mobile in employment opportunities as they can move to other employers and take their talents with them. Standardization of professional training and procedures enhances this mobility.^[7].

References

^ Perks, R.W.(1993): Accountancy and Society. Chapman & Hall (London); ISBN 0412473305. p.2
^ Buckley, J.W. & Buckley, M.H. (1974): The Accounting Profession. Melville, Los Angeles. Quoted by Perks, p.4
^ Zola, I.K. (1977): Healthism and disabling medicalization. Marion Boyars Publishers, New York. Quoted by Perks, p.4
^ Holm, Ivar (2006). Ideas and Beliefs in Architecture and Industrial design: How attitudes, orientations and underlying assumptions shape the built environment. Oslo School of Architecture and Design. ISBN 8254701741.
^ Perks, p.6-11
^ Perks, p.11
^ Perks, pgs. 12-14

[1] Perks, R.W.(1993): Accountancy and Society. Chapman & Hall (London); ISBN 0412473305. p.2

[2] Buckley, J.W. & Buckley, M.H. (1974): The Accounting Profession. Melville, Los Angeles. Quoted by Perks, p.4

[3] Zola, I.K. (1977): Healthism and disabling medicalization. Marion Boyars Publishers, New York. Quoted by Perks, p.4

[4] Holm, Ivar (2006). Ideas and Beliefs in Architecture and Industrial design: How attitudes, orientations and underlying assumptions shape the built environment. Oslo School of Architecture and Design. ISBN 8254701741.

[5] Perks, p.6-11

[6] Perks, p.11

[7] Perks, pgs. 12-14

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

@@ Line 21: / Line 21: @@
 Just as some professions rise in status and power through various stages, so others may decline. This is characterized by the red cloaks of bishops giving way to the black cloaks of lawyers and then to the white cloaks of doctors<ref>Zola, I.K. (1977): ''Healthism and disabling medicalization''. Marion Boyars Publishers, New York. Quoted by Perks, p.4</ref>. With the church having receded in its role in western society, the remaining classical professions (law and medicine) are both noted by many as requiring not just study to enter, but ''extensive'' study and accreditation above and beyond simply getting a university degree. Accordingly more recently-formalized disciplines, such as [[architecture]], which now have equally-long periods of study associated with them, and which are becoming considered as their equal.<ref> Holm, Ivar (2006). ''Ideas and Beliefs in Architecture and Industrial design: How attitudes, orientations and underlying assumptions shape the built environment''. Oslo School of Architecture and Design. ISBN 8254701741.</ref>
+==Characteristics of a profession==
+The list of characteristics that follows is extensive, but does not claim to include every characteristic that has ever been attributed to professions, nor do all of these features apply to every profession:
+#'' Skill based on theoretical knowledge'': Professionals are assumed to have extensive theoretical knowledge (e.g. medicine, law, scripture or engineering0 and to possess skills based on that knowledge that they are able to apply in practise.
+#'' Professional association'': Professions usually have professional bodies organized by their members, which are intended to enhance the status of their members and have carefully controlled entrance requirements.
+#'' Extensive period of education'': The most prestigious professions usually require at least three years at university.
+#''Testing of competence'': Before being admitted to membership of a professional body, there is usually a requirement to pass prescribed examinations that are based on mainly theoretical knowledge.
+#''Instituitional training'': In addition to examinations, there is usually a requirement for a long period of institutionalised training where aspiring professionals acquire specified practical experience in some sort of trainee role before being recognized as a full member of a professional body.
+#''Licenced practioners'': Professions seek to establish a register or membership so that only those individuals so licenced are recognized.
+#''Work autonomy'': Professionals tend to retain control over their work, even when they are employed outside the profession in commercial or public organizations.
+#''Code of professional conduct or ethics'': Professional bodies usually have codes of conduct or ethics for their members and disciplinary procedures for those who infringe the rules.
+#''Self-regulation'': Professional bodies tend to insist that they should be self-regulating and independent from government.
+#''Public service and altruism'': The earning of fees for services rendered can be defended because they are provided in the public interest, e.g. the work of doctors contributes to public health.
+#''Exclusion, monopoly and legal recognition'': Professions tend to exclude those who have not met their requirements and joined the appropriate professional body.
+#''Control of remuneration and advertising'': Where levels of remuneration are determined by government, professional bodies are active in negotiating remuneration packages for their members. Some profession set standard scale fees, but goverment advocacy of competition means that these are no longer generally enforced.
+#''High status and rewards'': The most successful professions achieve high status and rewards for their members. Some of the factors included in this list contribute to such sucess.
+#''Individual clients'': Many professions have individual fee-paying clients. For example, in accountancy, "the profession" usually refers to accountants who have individual and corporate clients, rather than accountants who are employees of organizations.<ref>Perks, p.6-11</ref>.
+#''Middle-class occupations'': Tradionally many professions have been viewed as 'respectable' occupations for middle and upper classes.
+#''Male-dominated'': The highest status professions tend to have been male dominated. For example, the proportion of women in school-teaching has increased as its status has declined, and women are being admitted ot the priesthood now that its status has declined relative to other professions. Similar arguments apply to race: women, thnic groups and working-class people are no less disadvantaged in most professions than they are in society generally<ref>Perks, p.11</ref>.
+#''Offer reassurance'': Professionals are able to offer reassurance to their clients that although there appear to be problems, everything is normal or being dealt with properly, and this reassurance may be offered rather than solutions to particular problems. For example, sick people may be reassured that they will probably get better in a few days.
+#''Ritual'': Church ritual, and the Court procedure are obviously ritualistic.
+#''Legitimacy'': Professions ahve clear legal authority over some activities (e.g. certifying the insane) but are also seen as adding legitimacy to awide range of related activities.
+#''Inaccessible body of knowledge'': In some professions, the body of knowledge is relatively inaccessible to the uniitiated. Medicine and law are typically not school subjects and have seperate faculties and even seperate libaries at universities..
+#''Indeterminacy of knowledge'': Professional knowledge contains elements that escape being mastered and communicated inthe form of rules and can only be acquired through experience.
+#''Mobility'': The skill knowledge and authority of professionals belongs to the professionals as individuals, not the organizations for which they work. Professionals are therefore relatively mobile in employment opportunities as they can move to other employers and take their talents with them. Standardization of professional training and procedures enhances this mobility.<ref>Perks, pgs. 12-14</ref>.
 ==See also==