Sicilian Vespers

Sicilian Vespers
Part of War of the Sicilian Vespers
Sicilian Vespers (1846), by Francesco Hayez.
Date 30 March 1282 Location Sicily
Belligerents
Sicilian rebels Byzantine flag Byzantine empire Kingdom of Aragon	Charles of Anjou
Commanders and leaders
Alaimo of Lentini	Charles of Anjou

The Sicilian Vespers is the name given to a rebellion in Sicily in 1282 against the rule of the Angevin king Charles I of Naples, who had taken control of the island with Papal support in 1266. It was the beginning of the eponymous War of the Sicilian Vespers.

Background

The rising had its origin in the struggle between the Hohenstaufen-ruled Holy Roman Empire and the Papacy for control over Italy. When the Hohenstaufen Manfred of Sicily was defeated in 1266, the Kingdom of Sicily was entrusted to his rival, Charles of Anjou, by Pope Urban IV.

Charles regarded his Sicilian territories as a springboard for his Mediterranean ambitions, which included the overthrow of the Byzantine emperor Michael VIII Palaeologus. His French officials (who governed Sicily badly) mistreated native Sicilians with rape, theft and murder.

There are two interpretations, not necessarily exclusive, of events. One stresses the weltpolitik of Michael Palaeologus and the Aragonese king Peter III, Manfred's son-in-law, in fomenting the revolt; the other concentrates on the unpopularity of Charles's rule among native Sicilians. The latter view gained popularity during the Risorgimento when it was propounded by the patriot Michele Amari. Regarding the former, Michael VIII in his autobiography wrote: "Should I dare to claim that I was God's instrument to bring freedom to the Sicilians, then I should only be stating the truth."

The uprising

The church of the Holy Spirit in Palermo.

The event is named because the insurrection began at the start of vespers, the sunset prayer marking the beginning of the Night Vigil, (See, "The Catholic Encyclopedia" @ [1] on Easter Monday March 30, 1282 at the Church of the Holy Spirit just outside Palermo. Because the city's borders have expanded over the centuries, the church is now located within the city limits. Beginning on the night of the Vespers, thousands of Sicily's French inhabitants were massacred over the next six weeks. The events that started the uprising are not known for certain, but the various retellings have common elements.--Siciliano99 (talk) 20:32, 26 July 2009 (UTC)Siciliano99

According to Steven Runciman in his magnus opus "The Sicilian Vespers", the Sicilians at the church were engaged in holiday festivities and a group of French officials came by to join in and began to drink. A sergeant named Drouet dragged a young married woman from the crowd, pestering her with his advances. Her husband then attacked Drouet with a knife, killing him. When the other Frenchmen tried to avenge their comrade the Sicilian crowd fell upon them, killing them all. At that moment all the church bells in Palermo began to ring for Vespers. Runciman best describes the mood of the night:

"To the sound of the bells messengers ran through the city calling on the men of Palermo to rise against the oppressor. At once the streets were filled with angry armed men, crying "Death to the French" ('Moranu li Franchiski' in the Sicilian language). Every Frenchman they met was struck down. They poured into the inns frequented by the French and the houses where they dwelt, sparing neither man, woman nor child. Sicilian girls who had married Frenchmen perished with their husbands. The rioters broke into the Dominican and Franciscan convents; and all the foreign friars were dragged out and told to pronounce the word 'ciciri', whose sound the French tongue could never accurately reproduce. Anyone who failed the test was slain."

In the version according to Leonardo Bruni (1416), the Palermitans were holding a festival outside the city when the French came up to check for weapons, and on that pretext began to fondle the breasts of their women. This then began a riot, the French were attacked first with rocks, then weapons, killing them all. The news spread to other cities leading to revolt throughout Sicily. "By the time the furious anger at their insolence had drunk its fill of blood, the French had given up to the Sicilians not only their ill-gotten riches but their lives as well".

There is also a third version of the events that is quite close to Runciman's, varying only in the minor details This story is part of the oral tradition on the Island up to the present time. However, as an oral tradition, it cannot be verified and is of little interest to Historians, but is of much interest to Sociologists. (See Tournatore, Matteo G. C., Arba Sicula {Sicilian Dawn}, a journal of Sicilian Folklore and Literature, Vol XXV, Numira 1 & 2 @ p.47 et seq.)

Aftermath

Initially, after the revolt, the islanders sent an ambassador to Pope Martin IV and made plea to have the Pope recognise each city on the island as a Free Commune under the sole suzerainty of the Holy Church. (See Runciman, supra, @ p. 216; citing Nicholas Specialis, Historia Sicula @ p. 924, et seq.). However the French Pope was firmly in Charles camp and he directed the Sicilians to recognize Charles as their rightful King.(See Runciman, supra @ p.214, et seq.) But the Sicilians hated the French, especially Charles because he ruled their Kingdom from Naples rather than Palermo where he could see their suffering. Charles's island officials were far removed from his oversight; he did not see the avarice, the abusive behavior of his officials manifesting itself as rape, theft and murder. He did not see the high taxes levied against the meager possesions of the peasants, which kept them impoverished, but made no improvement in their lives.

After unsuccessful pleas to the Pope were met with a refusal of recognition as a Free Commune, the Islanders sent for King Peter III of Aragon. King Peter's wife Queen Constance was the sole legitimate surviving heir of the Holy Roman Emperor Friedrick II, who was not in captivity. She was decended from Fredrick I Barbarossa, King of Germany, King of the Romans and Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. He had been the most powerful member of the Hohenstaufen dynasty. King Peter championed his wife's claim to the entirety of the Kingdom of Sicily, which stretched from the southern outskirts of Rome all the way down the Italian boot and included the island of Sicily.(See Runciman, supra @ p. 201)

Prior to the Vespers, Peter had constructed and outfitted a fleet for war. Upon the Pope's inquiry of the need for such a great war fleet, Peter stated that it was to be used against the followers of Islam along the Northern coast of Africa as he had legitimate interests in trade there and he needed to protect them. So when Peter received a request for help from the Sicilians he was convenietly on the North Coast of Africe just 200 miles across the sea from the Island. At first, Peter feigned to be indifferent to the request of the Sicilians and to the plight of the Islanders. After several days to allow a proper showing of insouciance made for the Pope's consumption, Peter took advantage of the revolt. He reboarded his fleet and landed in Sicily at Trapani on August 30, 1282. Peter's involvment changed the character of the uprising from a local revolt into a European War. (See Runciman, supra @ p. 227, citing Bartholomew of Neocastro,Historia Sicula @ p. 24, et seq). Peter arrived at Palermo on September 2nd. Initially, Peter was received by the populace with indifference, it was merely one foreign King replacing another; they much preferred a Free Commune under a vague suzerainty of the Pope. However, after Pope Martin made plain his choice of Charles, Peter made a promise to the Islanders that they would enjoy the ancient privleges they had had under the Norman Kings. Thereafter, Peter was accepted as a satisfactory second choice and was crowned by acclamation of the people at the Catheral in Palermo on September 4th thus becoming also Peter I of Sicily. (See Runciman, supra, @ p. 228). --Siciliano99 (talk) 04:02, 26 July 2009 (UTC)Siciliano99

With the Pope's blessing the counterattack from Charles was not long in coming, his fleet from Naples arrived and blockaded the port of Messina and made several attempts to land troops on the island, but all were repulsed.

Prelude to a Kingdom

Prior to the ascension of Charles, Pope Urban IV had followed the policy of his predecessors in seeking to deny the crown to the heirs of Barbarossa because of his rightful fear of Hohenstauffen power. The Hohenstaufen controlled Germany and traditionally, whoever held this crown was then lawfully selected by a council of electors as the "King of the Romans". For historical reasons, the person elected as "King of the Romans" was entitled to eventually be crowned by the Pope as the "Holy Roman Emperor" and charged with the responsibility of protecting the interests of the church in the lands stretching from Rome to the Northeast, through the Marches, Tuscany, Latium and towards Venice...this constituted the Holy Roman Empire, although its borders varied depending upon the ability of each Pope to protect the land from encrouchment. With the Hohenstaufen in control of Germany, the Holy Roman Empire, and the entirety of the Kingdom of Sicily, they could and often did, ride roughshod over the church's temporal interests. The people who supported the Emperor in trying to reconstruct the ancient Imperial Roman Empire were known as Ghibellines, named after the Hohenstaufen castle of Weibling in Germany (Runciman, supra @ p.19). Their weapon was temporal power and the vestige of respect that still attached to the title of Emperor. (Runciman, supra @ 19). They were at odds with the supporters of the Pope, known as Guelfs, named after the Welf-Saxon Dynasty who had supported the Popes against the Hohenstaufen (Runciman, supra @ p.19). They supported the church in its clashes with the Imperialists throughout the cities of Italy. (Runciman, supra @ p. 19) The Guelfs longed for a Pope who would use moral persuasion, and the spiritual powers of Excommunication Interdict, and Anathema to unite and preside over all the crowned heads in Christendom...to fulfill the goals of the Hildebrandine Theocracy. The idea of a Theocracy had been the dream of a monk named Hildebrand from Cluny France who eventually became Pope Gregory VII. (Runciman, supra @ p.22). Throughout Italy the Ghibellines and the Guelfs clashed for control over towns, cities and the countryside. It was a fight for the minds of populace, much akin to the clash now ongoing in the Islamic world. Should the people be governed by a moral but ridgid religious law or a secular law that had the flexibility to change with the times?

Upon the death of the last Hohenstaufen ruler of Sicily, King Federico II in 1251 also known as the AntiChrist because of his immoral behavior, Pope Innocent IV established a papal policy that dictated that the church must be protected from the Hohenstaufen vipers and be denied the crown of Sicily at all costs. Successive Popes followed this policy. After Federico's death, Pope Alexander IV literally shopped around for a buyer of the crown of Sicily. There was much interest, but it was not until 1256 that King Henry of England agreed to buy the crown for his son Prince Edmund in exchange for 135,541 German marks. He raised secular and church taxes in England and paid the Pope 60,000 marks, but could raise no more. The people and clergy of England refused to be taxed any further to enable an English Prince to sit on the Sicilian throne. In addition to the payment to the church, Edmund would now have to fight Manfred, a bastard of King Federico, who had literally fought his way to the throne during the interregnum. On December 18, 1258 Pope Alexander issued a Bull releasing Henry from his obligation to buy the throne, but he kept the 60,000 marks already paid.

Alexander died in May of 1261. His successor to the throne of St. Peter was Urban IV, a Frenchman who had spent most of his years in the Holy Land in the Middle East and was unschooled in the politics of Europe. His instincts were to choose a Frenchman as King of Sicily and he offered it to King Louis of France, also known as St. Louis. However, Louis hesitated because he knew of the lawful interests of the lawful rights of Conradin, the grandson of Barbarosa. The Pope in turn offered the crown to Louis brother Charles, the Count of Anjou and Maine. There was much gossip that he accepted the crown because his wife was a mere countess while all of her sisters were Queens by virtue of better marriages. She longed to be their equal. But in the event, Charles had an even greater desire to be a King. He had proven his worth to the Pope by virtue of his conquest of rebellions that had erupted in Provence and northern Italy in Piedmont. The Pope believed that man of such vigor could be counted upon to strike a blow for the church; he did not know that Charles would strike such a blow only so long as his desires and the church's interests did not diverge.

In the ensuing war for control of the Sicilian Kingdom Charles would win important battles at Tagliacozzo and Benvenuto. Not being satisfied in conquering all armies laid against him, he captured and in a public square in Naples, he decapitated the 16 year old Conradin. All of his Italian and Sicilian subjects were shocked and took note...their new king was merciless. He continued to show his merciless attitude by naming abusive Frenchman to rule the Island of Sicily as Justicars, Tax Collectors and bureaucrats. After many years of high taxes, rape, theft and injustice, the Sicilian people rose as one on the Night of the Sicilian Vespers.

Lost in the interpretation of the events on the island is its effect on world affairs. The Vespers were to the 13th Century what World War II was to the 20th Century. At the time of the Vespers Charles was the most powerful crowned head in all Christendom. King of all of Sicily, Count of Anjou and Maine, Forcalquier, and of Provence. (Runciman, supra @ p. 201). Yet he was still looking for more. The wealth he collected from his lands he used to build a fleet with the intention of invading Constantinople, ruled by the Emperor of the East, Michael Paleolongus. The bulk of the fleet was built and lying in the harbor in Messina awaiting Charles arrival with the rest of the fleet that had been built in Naples. The Pope had told Charles that he was not to invade Constantinople as it was a Christian kingdom and the Pope hoped for a reconcilliation between the Eastern Church and the Church of Rome...an aspiration that is still alive today. So Charles did what any ambitious man would do, he lied. He told the Pope that he had built the fleet in order to go on crusade against the infidel in the Holy Land. Just like King Peter, he had lied to the Pope about the true uses of the fleet, hoping that after the event he could placate the Pope with a share of the spoils. During the rebellion on the island, one of the first acts of the Sicilians was to burn Charles' fleet in Messina, thus dashing any attempt he may have had in investing Constantinople. Byzantium diplomacy was the best in the world at that time. The Emperor Michael was very relieved to have received word of the destruction of Charles fleet, for it was he who had paid for the construction of King Peter's fleet in Spain through the intercession of John of Procida. "However it may have been plotted and prepared, it was that one March evening of the Vespers at Palermo that brought down King Charles's empire" (Runciman, supra @ p. 256)

Charles remained in control of the mainland Kingdom of Naples until his death in 1285 and his heirs continued to reign there until Peter's successors reunited the territories in 1442.

Primary sources

Runciman, Steven "The Sicilian Vespers" Cambridge University Press, 1958 ISBN 0-521-43774-1

Runciman, Steven "The History of the Crusades" Cambridge University Press. Siciliano99

"Lu Rebellamentu degli Sichili contra il Re Carlu degli Franchese" is still located in the Library in Palermo. Whether it is a contemporary narrative or not hinges on the interpretation of one word in the text. --Siciliano99 (talk) 04:02, 26 July 2009 (UTC)Sicilian99

The earliest narrative source for the Vespers is the Sicilian Rebellamentu di Sichilia, written perhaps as early as 1287. It credits John of Procida with organising the overthrow of the French and portrays him in a positive light. Two later Guelph Tuscan histories, the Liber Jani de Procida et Palialoco and the Leggenda di Messer Gianni di Procida, possibly relying on the Rebellamentu or the Rebellamentu's lost source, follow it in stressing John's involvement, but they portray him in a more critical light. The Liber, as its title suggests, emphasises John's negotiations with Michael VIII ("Palioloco").

Besides these there are two Florentine chronicles of importance. The Leggenda was once thought to be a source for the Nuova Cronica of Giovanni Villani, itself a source for the Vespers. Brunetto Latini, in his Tesoro, similarly adopts the Sicilian version of events, which includes the earliest version of the rape. The Tuscan Liber turns the rape story around, suggesting the Sicilian woman had pulled a knife on her French suitor when his friends came to aid him.

Sicilian Vespers (1846), by Francesco Hayez.

The Catholic Encyclopedia..."http://www.catholic.org/search_site.php?search_term"--A description of all prayer 'Offices' is described therein...Vespers, Matins, Laudes...etc.--Siciliano99 (talk) 04:02, 26 July 2009 (UTC)Siciliano99

Jordan, L'Allemange et l'Italie", @ p. 219-221; and Robinson, (supra) @ 255-266. These are the two best sources of the blasphemous and cunning character of Fredrick II as king. --Siciliano99 (talk) 04:02, 26 July 2009 (UTC)Siciliano99

Bathgen, "Die Regentschaft Papst Innocenz III im Konigreich Sizilien" is the best source for a description of his Fredrick's minority. See also, Van Cleve, "Markward of Anweiler"; and Luchaire, "Innocent III, vol. III; and "Rome et l'Italie", p. 153-204. --Siciliano99 (talk) 04:02, 26 July 2009 (UTC)Siciliano99

Jordan, (supra) @ p. 272-274 discusses the origin of the Geulf and Ghibelline factions. See also, Hefele-Leclercq, "Historie des Conciles" vol VI, I, p.6-9. Siciliano99

Chalandon, "Historie de la Domination Normande en Italia", vol. I, p 189-211, 327-354. These are excellent sources describing the Norman Conquest of Italy and Sicily by the Guiscard family. For Norman rule in Sicily, see vol II, passim. Siciliano99

References in culture

• Giuseppe Verdi's opera Les vêpres siciliennes is based on this conflict.
• Francesco Hayez painted a series on the Sicilian Vespers, beginning in 1821.

Other uses of the term

• In 1494 when the French King Charles VIII was invading Italy he told the Spanish ambassador that his armies would move so fast that he would "breakfast in Milan and dine in Rome." Whereupon the ambassador replied that doubtless he would be in Sicily in time for Vespers.
• Having previously arranged the murder of mafia boss Joseph Masseria on 15 April 1931 in order to consolidate organized crime in New York City under Salvatore Maranzano, mafia boss Lucky Luciano then ordered the murders of Maranzano and those capos of Maranzano and Masseria whom Luciano saw as threats. These murders occurred on September 10, 1931 which marked the end of the Castellammarese War in New York City and in mafia parlance is known as the Night of the Sicilian Vespers.
• Sicily-born brothers David and Francis Rifugiato named their short-lived band "The Sicilian Vespers" after this event. They released one album on Profile Records in 1988.

References

• Steven Runciman (1958),The Sicilian Vespers, ISBN 0-521-43774-1. Considered a classic of history.
• Leonardo Bruni (1416), History of the Florentine People, Harvard, 2001, ISBN 0-674-00506-6. Regarded as the first history book to be called "modern", and the first modern historian, it also happens to cover the events of this period.
• Michael VIII Palaeologus, De Vita sua Opusculum, (ed. J. Troitsky in Christianskoe Chtenie, vol. II). St Petersburg, 1885.
• "Sicilian Vespers". In Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
• John J. Robinson (1991), Dungeon, Fire, & Sword The Knights Templar in the Crusades ISBN 1-56731-645-X