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An '''online interview''' is an [[online research method]] |
An '''online interview''' is an [[online research method]] conducted using [[computer-mediated communication]] (CMC)<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Qualitative Online Interviews: Strategies, Design, and Skills.|last=Salmons|first=J.|publisher=SAGE Publications|year=2014|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref>, such as instant messaging, email, or video. Online interviews require different ethical considerations, sampling and rapport than practices found in traditional face-to-face (F2F) [[interviews]]. Online interviews are separated into [[Synchronization|synchronous]] online interviews, for example via [[online chat]] which happen in ‘real time’ online <ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://srmo.sagepub.com/view/the-sage-handbook-of-online-research-methods/n15.xml|title=Internet-based Interviewing : SAGE Research Methods|website=srmo.sagepub.com|access-date=2016-04-16}}</ref> and [[Asynchronous communication#Electronically mediated communication|asynchronous online]] interviews, for example via [[email]] conducted in non-real time<ref name=":0" />. Some authors discuss online interviews in relation to [[online focus groups]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://srmo.sagepub.com/view/the-sage-handbook-of-online-research-methods/n15.xml|title=Internet-based Interviewing : SAGE Research Methods|website=srmo.sagepub.com|access-date=2016-04-16}}</ref> <ref name="Stromer" />whereas others look at online interviews as separate research methods<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stewart|first=Kate|last2=Williams|first2=Matthew|date=2005-11-01|title=Researching online populations: the use of online focus groups for social research|url=http://qrj.sagepub.com/content/5/4/395|journal=Qualitative Research|language=en|volume=5|issue=4|pages=395–416|doi=10.1177/1468794105056916|issn=1468-7941}}</ref>. This article will only discuss online interviews. |
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Online interviews, like offline interviews, typically ask respondents to explain what they think or how they feel about an aspect of their social world.<ref name= |
Online interviews, like offline interviews, typically ask respondents to explain what they think or how they feel about an aspect of their social world.<ref name="Lindlof">{{cite book|title=Qualitative communication research methods|last2=Taylor|first2=Bryan|date=2002|publisher=Sage|location=Thousand Oaks, CA|last1=Lindlof|first1=Thomas}}</ref> Interviews are especially useful for understanding the meanings participants assign to their activities; their perspectives, motives, and experiences.<ref name="Stromer">{{cite journal|date=2003|title=Depth Interviews for the Study of Motives and Perceptions of Internet Use|journal=Presented at the International Communication Association Conference|location=San Diego, CA|last1=Stromer-Galley|first1=Jennifer}}</ref> Interviews are also useful for eliciting the language used by group members, gathering information about processes that cannot be observed, or inquiring about the past.<ref name="Lindlof" /> Thus the objectives researchers have do not differ significantly, however the methods and research design can be effected by the online component of the research which this article will take issue with. |
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== |
== Methodologies == |
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| ⚫ | In online interviews, data is primarily generated through conversations between a researcher and "respondent." Researchers often seek out a deliberate (or "non-random") selection of respondents, recruiting individuals who can provide insight on a particular phenomenon, situation, or practice.<ref name="Lindlof" /> Online Interviews can utilize a selection of formats and employ varying means of computer-mediated communication (CMC). |
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While there is a vast body of literature concerned with qualitative interviewing<ref>Becker and Bryman 2004; Burgess 1984; Flick 2002; May 2001</ref> the ''online'' approach to interviewing remains a new and innovative research method. Online interviewing has both benefits and drawbacks, which can vary according to the method of communication. |
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The interview is synchronous if it is conducted in real time. [[Skype]] interviews allow participants and researchers to converse in real time. Video chat is the closest a researcher will get towards resembling a face-to-face interview<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hanna|first=Paul|date=2012-04-01|title=Using internet technologies (such as Skype) as a research medium: a research note|url=http://qrj.sagepub.com/content/12/2/239|journal=Qualitative Research|language=en|volume=12|issue=2|pages=239–242|doi=10.1177/1468794111426607|issn=1468-7941}}</ref>. This is because it allows for facial expressions and other visual cues that are absent in textually based forms such as chatrooms.<ref name="Hanna2012">{{cite journal|date=5 April 2012|title=Using internet technologies (such as Skype) as a research medium: a research note|journal=Qualitative Research|volume=12|issue=2|pages=239–242|doi=10.1177/1468794111426607|last1=Hanna|first1=P.}}</ref> Another way of conducting synchronous interviews online is using [[WebRTC]]. When WebRTC is used web browser (Firefox, Chrome or IE) acts as a client and both the parties can connect over a real-time video-chat. |
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=== Asynchronous === |
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An asynchronous online interview takes place when the researcher and the participant are not online at the same time. Typically these interviews will use email but other technologies might also be employed. This can be an advantage for research conducted across time zones or with busy participants, allowing them to answer questions at their convenience.<ref name="Lindlof" /> Kitvits (2005 cited in Dowling 2012) point out that asynchonous interviews are very useful for reflective process which helps to assure rigor<ref name=":2" />. |
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*Reach a target audience where the audience is unknown (e.g. people who may use a certain type of technology) or would like to remain anonymous. |
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| ⚫ | A concern related to the asynchronous method is the possibility of interviews gradually drying up over an extended period. While the possibility of long term "[[Longitudinal study|longitudinal]]" research is valuable, it is also risky. Completion requires high levels of participant motivation, since they have not dedicated a specific block of time.<ref name="Stromer" /> Additionally, asynchronous online interviews may feel less conversational and make it more difficult to ask follow-up questions. Rezabek (2000) describes this as a "lack of timeliness".<ref>Rezabek, Roger (2000, January). Online focus groups: Electronic discussions for research [67 paragraphs]. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung / Forum: Qualitative Social Research [online journal], 1(1). http://www.qualitative-research.net/fqs-texte/1-00/1-00rezabek-e.htm</ref> |
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| ⚫ | There are, however, possible drawbacks to online interviews. Scholars such as Mann and Stewart (2005) have questioned how effective they are in comparison to face-to-face interviews |
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=== Structured === |
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Structured interviews are guided by questions which are prepared prior to the interview<ref name=":1" />. |
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Online Interviews can utilize a selection of formats and employ varying means of computer-mediated communication (CMC). |
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=== Semi-structured === |
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| ⚫ | In online interviews, data is primarily generated through conversations between a researcher and "respondent." Researchers often seek out a deliberate (or "non-random") selection of respondents, recruiting individuals who |
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Semi-structured interviews balance the pre-planned questions of a structured approach with the spontaneity and flexibility of the unstructured interview<ref name=":1" />. |
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=== Unstructured === |
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Like [[interviews#types of interviews|offline interviews]], online interviews can be structured or unstructured; varying in the degree to which they adhere to a pre-written, standardized interview guide. The structuring of interviews allows researchers to compare within and between groups of people, by generating a selection of perspectives on a similar series of topics. However, even the most structured of interviews allow researchers to ask follow-up questions and deviate slightly from protocol to seek elaboration on an interesting point.<ref name=Stromer /> |
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| ⚫ | Unstructured interviews are conversations where the researcher collects data on a broad topic, however, does have any specific questions prepared<ref name=":1" />, allowing informants to guide the conversation by offering stories and additional insights.<ref name="Lindlof" /> Unstructured interviews may be especially useful when researchers are trying to understand an unfamiliar setting, a phenomenon or people's motives<ref name="Stromer" />. Dowling (2012) used unstructured interviews in an asynchronous format via email<ref name=":2" />. |
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== Online versus Offline == |
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=== Advantages === |
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=== Text based: chatrooms, instant messaging, and e-mail === |
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| ⚫ | * reach a target audience where the audience is unknown (e.g. people who may use a certain type of technology) or would like to remain anonymous. E-mail and instant messaging interview methods have the advantage of privacy.<ref name="Stromer" /> Interviews that take place in public online venues (e.g. discussion boards, chatrooms) may be off-putting to some participants.<ref name="illingworth">{{cite web|url=http://www.socresonline.org.uk/6/2/illingworth.html|title=The Internet Matters: Exploring the Use of the Internet as a Research Tool|last=Illingworth|first=Nicola|date=31 August 2001|accessdate=11 February 2009|work=Sociological Research Online}}</ref> |
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* interview individuals who would like to stay visual anonymous and to engage in more self-disclosure or feel liberated from stereotypes that may be associated with visible identity markers such as age, race or gender<ref name="Stromer" />. Because the participant cannot see the researcher, this may also help reduce issues of [[interviewer effect]]. |
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In asynchronous interviews the extended time frame can also be a benefit allowing researchers more time to think of evocative or precise follow-up questions. Researchers can reread the chat history and use previous responses to inform the subsequent questions<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://srmo.sagepub.com/view/cases-in-online-interview-research/n11.xml|title=Online Asynchronous and Face-to-Face Interviewing: Comparing Methods for Exploring Women's Experiences of Breastfeeding Long Term : SAGE Research Methods|website=srmo.sagepub.com|access-date=2016-04-16}}</ref>. |
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=== Limitations === |
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| ⚫ | Internet researcher Annette Markham (1998) observes that text-based interviewing can take much longer than face-to-face, phone or Skype interviews because typing takes longer than talking. Textual methods require users to verbalize conventional aspects of polite conversation, such as nodding or smiling, which requires added effort and time.<ref name |
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| ⚫ | There are, however, possible drawbacks to online interviews. Scholars such as Mann and Stewart (2005) have questioned how effective they are in comparison to face-to-face interviews<ref>Mann and Stewart (2005)''Internet Communication and Qualitative Research: A Handbook for Researching Online'' London: Sage</ref> . Online interviews may make it difficult to: |
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| ⚫ | Though the question-and-answer format of the interview is similar to face-to-face interviews, during text-based interviews participants and researchers are not visible to one another. This can make it difficult to assess how questions and responses are being interpreted on either side due to a lack of visual cues.<ref name="Markham1998" /> |
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| ⚫ | Internet researcher Annette Markham (1998) observes that text-based interviewing can take much longer than face-to-face, phone or Skype interviews because typing takes longer than talking. Textual methods require users to verbalize conventional aspects of polite conversation, such as nodding or smiling, which requires added effort and time.<ref name="Markham1998">{{cite book|title=Life online: researching real experience in virtual space|date=1998|publisher=Altamira Press|location=Walnut Creek, CA|pages=61-83|last1=Markham|first1=Annette}}</ref> |
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| ⚫ | E-mail and instant messaging interview methods have the advantage of privacy.<ref name |
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== Ethical Considerations == |
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====Asynchronous online interviews==== |
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There are some ethical and technical considerations which arise solely because the interview is conducted online. |
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=== Privacy === |
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If the research was conducted the researcher should consider taking appropriate steps to protect human subjects and, where appropriate, their avatars or online representations<ref name=":1" />. |
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The use of [[Skype]] and WebRTC as video-chat technologies overcomes many of the challenges present in alternate modes of conducting online interviews. Skype interviews allow participants and researchers to converse in real time and makes it possible to see facial expressions and other visual cues that are absent in textually based forms such as e-mail, chatrooms.<ref name="Hanna2012">{{cite journal|last1=Hanna|first1=P.|title=Using internet technologies (such as Skype) as a research medium: a research note|journal=Qualitative Research|date=5 April 2012|volume=12|issue=2|pages=239–242|doi=10.1177/1468794111426607}}</ref> WebRTC on the other hand provides an easier alternative to video-chat without the need of installing any software. When you use WebRTC based solution, your web browser (Firefox, Chrome or IE) acts as a client and both the parties can connect over a real-time video-chat. |
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=== Consent === |
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==== Online vs. telephone interviews==== |
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Has the researcher obtained proper informed consent? The importance of consent stays the same online. The researcher needs to obtain it so to not formally contravenes European data protection legislation<ref name=":0" />. However, it can be done in different ways online. For example, a consent form could be emailed and then faxed, posted or send back via email. Another way of creating consent could be to include a tick box "I accept" to simulate a signature<ref name=":0" />. |
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When selecting a research method it may be helpful to evaluate the relative merits of online interviews to telephone interviews. Telephones allow participants to give and receive verbal cues and it is easier for the interviewer to bring the participant back 'on topic'. Research by Carr and Worth (2001) also suggests that "studies which directly compare telephone and face-to-face interviewing tend to conclude that telephone interviewing produces data which are at least comparable in quality to those attained by the face-to-face method."<ref>Eloise C.J. Carr, Allison Worth. The use of the telephone interview for research. Nursing Times Research, Vol. 6, No. 1, 511-524 (2001)</ref> Alternately, online interviews maintain the [[#affordances|affordances listed previously]], while also coming at no additional cost to the participant. Interviews taking place over Skype (both in audio and video forms) may include all the benefits of phone conversation and be cheaper than international calling. |
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=== Withdrawal === |
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==Community interviews== |
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In asynchronous formats of interviews, researchers have experienced a lack of knowing if the participant has withdrawn or if the answer just took some time<ref name=":2" />. In synchronous interviews a withdraw button could be added<ref name=":0" />. |
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The Internet allows many people at once to directly interview persons of public interest. Voting-systems may allow communities to collectively find the questions they'd like to get answered most. |
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=== [[Etiquette in technology|Netiquette]] === |
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===Reddit AMAs=== |
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Netiquette, the way people except someone to behave online, becomes important for online interviews in three ways. Firstly, silence which can be used in face-to-face interviews as a tactic to encourage someone to talk more <ref>{{Cite book|title=Making sense of teen life: Strategies for capturing ethnographic data in a networked era. In E. Hargittai & C. Sandvig (Eds.), Digital Research Confidential: The Secrets of Studying Behavior Online|last=Boyd|first=Danah|publisher=The MIT Press|year=2015|isbn=|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|pages=}}</ref>- is more ambiguous online. It could mean that the interviewer has left, is slow to answer or even withdrew from the interview<ref name=":0" />. Secondly, by selecting participants for an online interview two things should be kept in mind. On the one side, the aspect of representation should be considered as not everyone has internet or has the technical abilities to use it<ref name=":0" />. Furthermore, if the interviewer aims to approach candidates online in forums, the researcher should think of ways how to do it in the least disruptive way, for example asking the forum facilitator first instead of directly posting the inquiry into the forum<ref name=":0" />. Another important aspect is the use of emoticons. A sensitive use of emoticons is advisable to adapt the style to suit that of the interviewee<ref name=":2" />. |
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{{Main|Reddit#IAmA and AMA}} |
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One popular subsite of the social media and aggregation site [[reddit]], /r/IAmA, prompts its users to ask celebrities, politicians other persons of public interest questions about any topic. These interviews are called "AMAs" for "ask me anything".<ref>{{cite news|last=Madrigal|first=Alexis C.|title='Ask Me Anything': How a Weird Internet Thing Became a New Form of Media|url=http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2014/01/ask-me-anything-how-a-weird-internet-thing-became-a-new-form-of-media/282860/|accessdate=January 7, 2014|newspaper=[[The Atlantic]]|date=January 7, 2014}}</ref> These interviews, of which there are multiple everyday, often receive thousands of questions which are voted on by the community via reddit's comment-voting system with all of them being answerable by the person being interviewed. Interviewees are required to provide proof of their identity to the volunteer [[Internet moderator|moderators]] of the site and have included people such as [[Barack Obama]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Barack Obama AMA|url=http://www.reddit.com/r/IAmA/comments/z1c9z/i_am_barack_obama_president_of_the_united_states/sort=new|publisher=Reddit}}</ref><ref name="potus-telegraph">{{cite news | title=President Obama makes online appearance on Reddit |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/us-election/9507620/President-Obama-makes-online-appearance-on-Reddit.html |accessdate=August 30, 2012 |date=August 29, 2012 |newspaper=The Telegraph |location=London}}</ref> [[Chris Hadfield]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Chris Hadfield AMA|url=http://www.reddit.com/r/IAmA/comments/18pik4/i_am_astronaut_chris_hadfield_currently_orbiting/|publisher=Reddit}}</ref> (who answered questions from the [[International Space Station]]), [[Bill Gates]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Bill Gates AMA|url=http://www.reddit.com/r/IAmA/comments/18bhme/im_bill_gates_cochair_of_the_bill_melinda_gates/|publisher=Reddit}}</ref> [[Stephen Colbert]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Stephen Colbert AMA|url=http://www.reddit.com/r/IAmA/comments/ee20j/stephen_colbert_has_answered_your_questions/|publisher=Reddit|accessdate=May 11, 2012}}</ref> [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]], [[Larry King]] and many more. <!--todo quote etc. --> |
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==References== |
== References == |
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{{reflist}} |
{{reflist}} |
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Revision as of 22:45, 21 May 2016
An online interview is an online research method conducted using computer-mediated communication (CMC)[1], such as instant messaging, email, or video. Online interviews require different ethical considerations, sampling and rapport than practices found in traditional face-to-face (F2F) interviews. Online interviews are separated into synchronous online interviews, for example via online chat which happen in ‘real time’ online [2] and asynchronous online interviews, for example via email conducted in non-real time[2]. Some authors discuss online interviews in relation to online focus groups[3] [4]whereas others look at online interviews as separate research methods[5]. This article will only discuss online interviews.
Online interviews, like offline interviews, typically ask respondents to explain what they think or how they feel about an aspect of their social world.[6] Interviews are especially useful for understanding the meanings participants assign to their activities; their perspectives, motives, and experiences.[4] Interviews are also useful for eliciting the language used by group members, gathering information about processes that cannot be observed, or inquiring about the past.[6] Thus the objectives researchers have do not differ significantly, however the methods and research design can be effected by the online component of the research which this article will take issue with.
Methodologies
In online interviews, data is primarily generated through conversations between a researcher and "respondent." Researchers often seek out a deliberate (or "non-random") selection of respondents, recruiting individuals who can provide insight on a particular phenomenon, situation, or practice.[6] Online Interviews can utilize a selection of formats and employ varying means of computer-mediated communication (CMC).
Synchronous
The interview is synchronous if it is conducted in real time. Skype interviews allow participants and researchers to converse in real time. Video chat is the closest a researcher will get towards resembling a face-to-face interview[7]. This is because it allows for facial expressions and other visual cues that are absent in textually based forms such as chatrooms.[8] Another way of conducting synchronous interviews online is using WebRTC. When WebRTC is used web browser (Firefox, Chrome or IE) acts as a client and both the parties can connect over a real-time video-chat.
Asynchronous
An asynchronous online interview takes place when the researcher and the participant are not online at the same time. Typically these interviews will use email but other technologies might also be employed. This can be an advantage for research conducted across time zones or with busy participants, allowing them to answer questions at their convenience.[6] Kitvits (2005 cited in Dowling 2012) point out that asynchonous interviews are very useful for reflective process which helps to assure rigor[9].
A concern related to the asynchronous method is the possibility of interviews gradually drying up over an extended period. While the possibility of long term "longitudinal" research is valuable, it is also risky. Completion requires high levels of participant motivation, since they have not dedicated a specific block of time.[4] Additionally, asynchronous online interviews may feel less conversational and make it more difficult to ask follow-up questions. Rezabek (2000) describes this as a "lack of timeliness".[10]
Structured
Structured interviews are guided by questions which are prepared prior to the interview[1].
Semi-structured
Semi-structured interviews balance the pre-planned questions of a structured approach with the spontaneity and flexibility of the unstructured interview[1].
Unstructured
Unstructured interviews are conversations where the researcher collects data on a broad topic, however, does have any specific questions prepared[1], allowing informants to guide the conversation by offering stories and additional insights.[6] Unstructured interviews may be especially useful when researchers are trying to understand an unfamiliar setting, a phenomenon or people's motives[4]. Dowling (2012) used unstructured interviews in an asynchronous format via email[9].
Online versus Offline
Advantages
There are many reasons a online interviews can be an appropriate and valuable methodological tool. For example, the use of online interviews as opposed to onsite interviews provides the researcher with opportunities to:
- carry out interviews with a very geographically dispersed population.
- interview individuals or groups who are often difficult to reach, such as the less physically mobile (disabled/in prison/in hospital) or the socially isolated (drug dealers/terminally ill/ etc.) or those living in dangerous places (e.g. war zones).
- carry out interviews in a personal, yet neutral, location such as a home.[8] Researchers and participants can be comfortable while still maintaining their personal space and, if necessary, keep their specific whereabouts private.
- reach a target audience where the audience is unknown (e.g. people who may use a certain type of technology) or would like to remain anonymous. E-mail and instant messaging interview methods have the advantage of privacy.[4] Interviews that take place in public online venues (e.g. discussion boards, chatrooms) may be off-putting to some participants.[11]
- provide savings in costs to the researcher (for example, costs associated with travel and venue hire).
- record data quickly and accurately. Video and audio interactions on Skype can be easily captured using desktop software.[8] Data generated from textual forms (e.g. chatrooms, e-mail correspondence) is already transcribed.
- reduce the environmental impact of research by eliminating the resource expenditure associated with traveling long distances.[8]
- interview individuals who would like to stay visual anonymous and to engage in more self-disclosure or feel liberated from stereotypes that may be associated with visible identity markers such as age, race or gender[4]. Because the participant cannot see the researcher, this may also help reduce issues of interviewer effect.
In asynchronous interviews the extended time frame can also be a benefit allowing researchers more time to think of evocative or precise follow-up questions. Researchers can reread the chat history and use previous responses to inform the subsequent questions[9].
Limitations
There are, however, possible drawbacks to online interviews. Scholars such as Mann and Stewart (2005) have questioned how effective they are in comparison to face-to-face interviews[12] . Online interviews may make it difficult to:
- establish a good rapport and level of trust between researcher and participant in a computer-mediated research relationship.
- achieve a long-term commitment to the research subject by participants, if this is necessary.
- communicate with participants with varying degrees of technical skill within a population. Participants cannot be assumed to all possess the level of technical competence required to employ the research methods.
- achieve satisfactory closure to the research relationship at the end of a long-term project.
- maintain attention, as the researcher may not have control over (or even be aware of) distractions that are interrupting the interviewee's engagement with the interview. [11]
- recruit participants. In order to access specific populations, there may be a need to 'advertise' through relevant newsgroups and forums.
Though the question-and-answer format of the interview is similar to face-to-face interviews, during text-based interviews participants and researchers are not visible to one another. This can make it difficult to assess how questions and responses are being interpreted on either side due to a lack of visual cues.[13]
Internet researcher Annette Markham (1998) observes that text-based interviewing can take much longer than face-to-face, phone or Skype interviews because typing takes longer than talking. Textual methods require users to verbalize conventional aspects of polite conversation, such as nodding or smiling, which requires added effort and time.[13]
Ethical Considerations
There are some ethical and technical considerations which arise solely because the interview is conducted online.
Privacy
If the research was conducted the researcher should consider taking appropriate steps to protect human subjects and, where appropriate, their avatars or online representations[1].
Consent
Has the researcher obtained proper informed consent? The importance of consent stays the same online. The researcher needs to obtain it so to not formally contravenes European data protection legislation[2]. However, it can be done in different ways online. For example, a consent form could be emailed and then faxed, posted or send back via email. Another way of creating consent could be to include a tick box "I accept" to simulate a signature[2].
Withdrawal
In asynchronous formats of interviews, researchers have experienced a lack of knowing if the participant has withdrawn or if the answer just took some time[9]. In synchronous interviews a withdraw button could be added[2].
Netiquette, the way people except someone to behave online, becomes important for online interviews in three ways. Firstly, silence which can be used in face-to-face interviews as a tactic to encourage someone to talk more [14]- is more ambiguous online. It could mean that the interviewer has left, is slow to answer or even withdrew from the interview[2]. Secondly, by selecting participants for an online interview two things should be kept in mind. On the one side, the aspect of representation should be considered as not everyone has internet or has the technical abilities to use it[2]. Furthermore, if the interviewer aims to approach candidates online in forums, the researcher should think of ways how to do it in the least disruptive way, for example asking the forum facilitator first instead of directly posting the inquiry into the forum[2]. Another important aspect is the use of emoticons. A sensitive use of emoticons is advisable to adapt the style to suit that of the interviewee[9].
References
- ^ a b c d e Salmons, J. (2014). Qualitative Online Interviews: Strategies, Design, and Skills. SAGE Publications.
- ^ a b c d e f g h "Internet-based Interviewing : SAGE Research Methods". srmo.sagepub.com. Retrieved 2016-04-16.
- ^ "Internet-based Interviewing : SAGE Research Methods". srmo.sagepub.com. Retrieved 2016-04-16.
- ^ a b c d e f Stromer-Galley, Jennifer (2003). "Depth Interviews for the Study of Motives and Perceptions of Internet Use". Presented at the International Communication Association Conference. San Diego, CA.
- ^ Stewart, Kate; Williams, Matthew (2005-11-01). "Researching online populations: the use of online focus groups for social research". Qualitative Research. 5 (4): 395–416. doi:10.1177/1468794105056916. ISSN 1468-7941.
- ^ a b c d e Lindlof, Thomas; Taylor, Bryan (2002). Qualitative communication research methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
- ^ Hanna, Paul (2012-04-01). "Using internet technologies (such as Skype) as a research medium: a research note". Qualitative Research. 12 (2): 239–242. doi:10.1177/1468794111426607. ISSN 1468-7941.
- ^ a b c d Hanna, P. (5 April 2012). "Using internet technologies (such as Skype) as a research medium: a research note". Qualitative Research. 12 (2): 239–242. doi:10.1177/1468794111426607.
- ^ a b c d e "Online Asynchronous and Face-to-Face Interviewing: Comparing Methods for Exploring Women's Experiences of Breastfeeding Long Term : SAGE Research Methods". srmo.sagepub.com. Retrieved 2016-04-16.
- ^ Rezabek, Roger (2000, January). Online focus groups: Electronic discussions for research [67 paragraphs]. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung / Forum: Qualitative Social Research [online journal], 1(1). http://www.qualitative-research.net/fqs-texte/1-00/1-00rezabek-e.htm
- ^ a b Illingworth, Nicola (31 August 2001). "The Internet Matters: Exploring the Use of the Internet as a Research Tool". Sociological Research Online. Retrieved 11 February 2009.
- ^ Mann and Stewart (2005)Internet Communication and Qualitative Research: A Handbook for Researching Online London: Sage
- ^ a b Markham, Annette (1998). Life online: researching real experience in virtual space. Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira Press. pp. 61–83.
- ^ Boyd, Danah (2015). Making sense of teen life: Strategies for capturing ethnographic data in a networked era. In E. Hargittai & C. Sandvig (Eds.), Digital Research Confidential: The Secrets of Studying Behavior Online. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press.
