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Additions to Electronic waste in the United States

1.) Overview/Introduction

Electronic waste is a growing problem: As the industrial world continues to technologically advance at a pace never seen before, used electronics are becoming the quickest-growing source of waste. The term "electronic waste" refers to electronic products that are near the end of the period of time in which they are able to function. As the production of Electronic waste continues to increase all around the world, in developing and developed countries, the environmental and health effects become increasingly documented and evident. The United States in particular has made an effort to start tracking and documenting where their E-waste goes and how it is disposed of. The National Strategy for Electronic Stewardship was co-founded by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Council on Environmental Quality, and the General Services Administration (GSA), and was introduced in 2011 to focus on federal action to establish electronic stewardship in the United States. According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency, toxic substances such as lead, mercury, arsenic, and cadmium are too often exposed to the environment and whole communities; these toxic contaminants can have detrimental effects on the health of ecosystems and living organisms. Electronic waste management includes newer recycling and reuse programs, domestic landfill dumping, and international shipments of domestically produced E-waste. The EPA approximates that in the year of 2009, the United States disposed of 2.37 million tons of E-waste; only 25% of which was domestically recycled.

2.) Brief History:

Up until 1965, there was no federal legislation regulating the disposal of solid and hazardous waste in the United States. The Solid Waste Disposal Act (SWDA) was passed by congress in 1965, and has since been amended. A major amendment to SWDA was the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), passed by congress in 1976. The RCRA gives the EPA the ability to regulate the flow of hazardous waste for the entire lifetime of the product, from beginning to end, including development, transport, and disposal. . -In 1986, a cargo vessel carrying 14,000 tons of toxic waste left Philadelphia and traveled around the world for more than five months continually being turned away from areas where it attempted to dump its contents. Eventually, much of the toxic waste was dumped into the Indian Ocean. - -

3.) International Regulation/regulatory bodies

The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal of 1989 is an international treaty that stipulates guidelines of hazardous waste. Since 2006, members of the Basel Convention began to discuss the addition of the electronic waste management. Though 184 states including the European Union have signed the treaty, the United States have not ratified. The United states is one of the largest exporters of electronic waste. -In terms of international regulatory bodies, in 2010 the United States EPA and United Nations University Solving the E-waste Problem Initiative (UNU-Step) began responding to the issue of electronic waste being exported to developing countries by tracking global flows of electronic waste. -In addition, in 2011 the United States EPA, Taiwanese EPA, and other international governments collaborated to form the International E-Waste Management Network (IEMN) to outline best practices on global electronic waste management and highlight next steps.

4.) United States Shipment of E-Waste

4.1) Largely due to public outcry, the aforementioned regulations and regulatory bodies have been put in place to prioritize the recycling and re-use of United States produced E-waste. While these programs are indeed increasing, the United States (along with a variety of economically developed countries) continues to ship portions of its E-waste across seas to economically developing countries. The exact amount of E-waste that the US exports has yet to be clarified: The United Nations estimates that between 10% and 40% of E-waste is exported, while the International Trade Commission estimates that the number is closer to 13 %. Despite the numerous reports existing that document the waste's movement and existence, there lacks a coherent presentation of the data; largely due to the difficulty of accessing this information. Studies indicate that there lacks a coherent summary of information primarily because of: undifferentiated trade codes, inconsistent methods of marking and classifying different electronic products, a lack of consistent records kept in waste destination countries, and a lack of pressure holding companies accountable. Shipment of e-waste is not a partisan issue since local governments and private industries collaborate to mange non-functioning electronics. Though the EPA has been an influential force on e-waste, export of e-waste and recycling can largely fall on the states under the Trump administration.

4.2) Research indicates that while mobile cell phones make up the overall greatest used electronics flows, TVs account for the largest flow of used electronics that are collected, and monitors are the group with highest export rates. The data records available show that the largest hubs for mobile phone deportation are Asia (Hong Kong, HKSAR) and the Caribbean and parts of Latin America (Guatemala, Paraguay, Panama, Peru, and Colombia.). Furthermore, larger electronics, such as TVs and monitors, have a higher likelihood of being exported to countries such as Mexico, Paraguay, Venezuela, and China. In addition to directly shipping waste overseas, many developed countries ship their E-waste to "transport sites", which then re-eport the waste to surrounding countries and make an extra profit. The largest international transit ports reside in Asia (Hong Kong, China, United Arab Emirates), which results in large quantities of waste ending up in smaller regions in the area. A prime example of this is the Chinese town of Guiyu, which has been denoted as the E-waste capital of the world. Data records indicate, however, that E-waste flows to Africa are minimal and that approximately 80% of used electronics are exported to countries with upper middle, lower middle, and low income economies. While this is true, destinations with higher economies generally serve as re-export centers for continued transport to surrounding low-income locations.

4.2.1) Export Results:

A.) TVs:

• Color TVs comprise the group with highest export rates.
• Higher transportation rates by vessel or over land rather than by air

B.) Mobile Phones:

• Largest export destinations: Latin America, Asia, South America
• 73% of exports occur by air

C.) Computers:

• Split into two categories: Desktop and Laptop

• Laptops have much higher export rates due to lower weight and higher re-use value

• Largest destination countries include Asia and Europe

D.) Monitors:

• Split into two categories: CRT Monitors and Flat Panel Monitors

4.2.2) Re-export Destination Flows:

Completely accurate data concerning E-waste export flows is difficult to acquire and accumulate for multiple reasons. For one, there is a difference between simply used electronics that are exported and re-used in different countries and used electronics that are broken down as waste. Reports that distinguish the two are lacking. Secondly, in many cases used electronic are shipped to a hub, where they are then exported to lower income areas that break down the devices, thus exposing the community to the toxins in the devices. These generally more rural locations, however, often lack accurate reports tracking the amount of waste that is imported. According to the records that track the initial export of used electronics, the major re-export destination hubs are: Lebanon, Argentina, Hong Kong, United Arab Emirates, Chile, Mexico, and China.

4.3) Hazardous Materials in Electronic Devices:

Electronic devices are combinations of hundreds of different types of materials; many of them are considered to be toxic when exposed to humans. Although present within the device, these toxic heavy metals have only been documented to become a health hazard once the device is broken down. The process of electrical device breakdown occurs in a variety of locations and settings (recycling sites, storage locations), yet becomes a prominent health hazard when broken down in domestic or international sites that do not have the correct equipment or recycling methods. When taken apart without proper security measures of recycling methods and tools, workers and residents becomes exposed to the toxic chemicals in the devices. A few of these chemicals include:

• Brominated Flame Retardants: BFRs are one of the materials that are used in the making of circuit boards and plastic casings. Long Term exposure to this toxin can result in problems concerning learning capability and memory function.
• Lead: Metallic lead exists in the electrical circuit boards and lead oxide is a component of the cathode ray tubes (CRTs) and is used to connect the glass face plate with funnel sections. Lead can leach from CRTs in landfill conditions, be released into the air through incineration, glass crushing, or high temperature processing. Similar to other toxins, lead can accumulate in the human body and biomass over a long period of time and can have damaging impacts on the nervous, respiratory, and cardiovascular systems.
• Cadmium: Cadmium compounds are used in a variety of electronic products, their functions ranging from stabilizing PVC formations to serving as wire insulators. Cadmium is a rare metal that is very toxic to plants, animals, and humans and is released into the air by incineration or poorly executed dismantling. When released, cadmium commonly accumulates in near-by crops, resulting in the additional exposure to humans and animals. Occupationally, fumes and dust containing cadmium compounds can be inhaled directly and long term exposure results in kidney failure and bone problems. Heart disease, hypertension, and lung cancer are other health effects of cadmium inhalation.
• Mercury: Mercury is primarily utilized in the lighting mechanisms for flat-screen devices. Mercury is a highly toxic chemical that can have fatal or severely damaging effects on the human central nervous system, especially during early development ages.

4.4) International Unregulated E-waste Junkyards

E-waste is primarily shipped to large international hubs, such as Hong Kong. However, the majority of waste that is not recycled in those hubs is exported to rural areas where the waste is improperly managed and becomes a severe contaminant. Unregulated junkyards and processing sites are unlicensed and almost always against the law. This results in a lack of worker protection and rights, generally indicating a lack of awareness of the risks and hazards. Aside from general improper dismantling of the devices, open burnings and waste storage commonly take place.

Improper Dismantling and Processing:

Unregulated E-waste processing junkyards do not contain the proper equipment or safety precautions. The primary dismantling process generally includes manual separation of the plastic sections from the rest of the device; the plastic sections are then shredded into small portions if not re-useable themselves. If these plastic fragments are not directly resold to larger companies, they are further broken down into a fine powder. When this fine powder is poorly regulated, it is easily inhaled and absorbed into the soil, air, and surrounding vegetation. The devices are also stripped of their heavy metal components; this process in turn exposes workers to the raw elements of the metals. In addition to manually dismantling the devices, unregulated junkyards are ultimate disposal sites. Device disposal is mainly done by burning or smashing and burying the fragments; the aftermath of which has been documented to cause significant health problems in the surrounding area.

Open Burning:

Open burnings are the most common means of 'disposing of' E-waste and occur primarily in rural areas with low incomes of developing countries. Communities use open burning for a variety of functions: For direct disposal, it takes the least amount of man-power and is the cheapest option. For precious metal extraction, it can be an effective method to extract certain valuable metals, such as gold. The combustion of burning E-waste results in ash that contains fine particulate matter; a measure of pollutants that has been linked to cardiovascular and pulmonary issues.Additional health risks result from direct exposure to the toxic metals that release dioxins when burned and if not inhaled, become embedded into the soil and plants in the surrounding area. The United Nations has done significant research into the growing issue of E-waste disposal and have documented that different communities are disporportionately affected by this issue: "Such practices are closely related to poverty because uncontrolled waste dumps typically are located close to human settlements. Since poor people neither have the economic means nor the technical knowledge, they also ignite their own wastes and thus create their own dioxin sources in their backyards. Therefore, women and children spending most time at home and living close to the burning areas are most exposed and at higher risk than others, e.g., urban and wealthier populations.”

Waste Storage for Processing:

In addition to open burning of E-waste, rural communities are often used as storage locations. There exist varying stages in the life of an electronic device, and devices are stored or recycled depending on their specific stage. Storage facilities are almost consistently improperly constructed and regulated and thus generally result in the contamination of the soil and natural area surrounding the facility. Facilities that store cathode ray tubes (CRT) (the image display units used in television and computer monitors), are particularly contaminated. Soil and dust samples collected at these locations indicate high levels of cadmium, zinc, and yttrium along with other heavy metal dioxins.

4.5) Export Companies

• "Electronics recyclers with e-Stewards certification can export the raw plastics and metals that come from dismantling electronics. But they adopt a strict no-export policy with regard to whole, non-working electronics with hazardous materials still inside. They can also export used electronics as long as they've been tested and proven to be still functioning."
  • "Electronics are often labeled as raw plastics to get through customs, Lau said, but they’re actually whole devices that the junkyard workers dismantle. They sell the most valuable components to buyers in mainland China, while workers indiscriminately dump the worthless leftovers."
    • Not only harm to the direct works you dismantle the devices, bu the parts that cant be resold get dumped into the land = the toxins leach into the ground, the water, and pollute the air = very bad environmental and health effects
      • Many locals say they don't even trust water from wells, let alone rivers
      • Whole communities can be plauged by disease and cancer due to toxin leaching into the ground While E-Waste recycling programs in the United States have been increasing, a portion of the waste continues to be shipped overseas. Recent research indicates that along with companies directly attempting to ship their waste overseas or into domestic landfills, certain recycling programs themselves have contributed to the export numbers. Companies interviewed ---economic difficulties - flatscreens for exmaple take much longer and are more costly to dismantle
• http://www.electronicstakeback.com/2013/07/24/responsible-electronics-recycling-act-to-ban-overseas-dumping-of-us-ewaste-introduced-in-congress/
  • Englewood - Executive recycling
  • Total reclaim
    • "In a phone interview, co-owner Craig Lorch acknowledged that some of Total Reclaim's LCD flat-screen monitors have been shipped to Hong Kong, despite the company’s no-export policy. “Our stuff was over there,” Lorch says. “We take responsibility for that and the mistakes we’ve made.”
      • http://kcts9.org/programs/circuit/tracking-down-america%E2%80%99s-electronic-waste
  • Dell reconnect (?)

    1.) INTRODUCTION OF US SHIPMENT. 

http://www.electronicstakeback.com/wp-content/uploads/Facts_and_Figures_on_EWaste_and_Recycling.pdf

^^GREAT WEBSITES WITH STATS AND NUMBERS

    2.) SUMMARIZE US E-WASTE TRADE FLOWS. 

    - EPA generated report: http://www.step-initiative.org/files/step/_documents/MIT-NCER%20US%20Used%20Electronics%20Flows%20Report%20-%20December%202013.pdf

    - NRDC reports:  https://www.nrdc.org/sites/default/files/ny104A.pdf 

    3.) MENTION CASE STUDIES (most targeted areas): CHINA, INDIA - maybe case studies under effects section

http://kcts9.org/programs/circuit/tracking-down-america%E2%80%99s-electronic-waste

http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/APCITY/UNPAN024685.pdf

- Good Guiyu article: http://old.seattletimes.com/html/nationworld/2002920133_ewaste09.html 

    4.) RELATION TO GOVERNMENT ADMINISTRATION (INFLUENCE OF TRUMP ADMINISTRATION) 

          - Anti-regulation, anti-environment platform that could affect federal and international regulation of e-waste disposal.

- EPA cuts - effect on E-waste program? (research how that program is funded - if the EPA or if executive/legislative branches directly fund it)

- Look into major Companies that ship E-waste across borders 

5.) Environmental and Health Effects 5.1) Domestic Effects -UNICOR, Federal prison labor program that recycles e-waste. https://oig.justice.gov/reports/BOP/o1010.pdf https://www.unicor.gov/Recycling.aspx

The US has not enacted a federal law to regulate the domestic recycling of e-waste , however, states are implementing policies to address its increasing accumulation. In the US, when electronic products stop functioning it will either be incinerated, landfilled, or recycled to salvage recyclable materials and protect public health and the environment by removing its toxic materials. Despite, attempts to push federal e-waste bills forward, which stems as far back as the 1990s , US states have held the most legislative agency on e-waste. So far, 25 states enacted legislation to regulate statewide e-waste recycling initiatives, which means 65% of the US population must uphold their state's e-waste recycling policies. The majority of the states with e-waste laws use the Producer Responsibility approach to hold manufacturers accountable for recycling retired electronic products but because state e-waste laws vary, the effectiveness of the laws in regulating environmental and health harms can differ. In addition, because the US has not ratified the Basel Convention on hazardous waste, the US can export e-waste to countries where the dismantling and recycling of e-waste is cheaper due to lax environmental and workplace regulations. Because the US does not have federal or intergovernmental e-waste policies and electronics producers still manufacture products with hazardous materials, e-waste is often times dismantled without strict regulations or compliance so substances like heavy metals, flame retardants, and plastics produce public health exposures. Due to the unregulated nature of the informal recycling sector in developing countries, US e-waste handlers could be exporting threats to human and environmental health.

Heavy metal pollution can stem from lead and mercury exposure. One can be exposed to lead through inhalation, ingestion, and skin contact which could produce nausea, vomiting, and convulsions, coma, or even death and in chronic cases cause anemia and abdominal pain. Lead can be found in lead-acid batteries, solders, and in televisions and monitors. Mercury, one of the most toxic and popular metals used in electronic products, is another e-waste pollutant, which can also be exposed through inhalation and skin contact, to cause vomiting, fever, and diarrhea symptoms and in chronic cases produce tremors. Because of its widespread application, Mercury can be found in products like batteries, fluorescent lamps, and thermostats. Cadmium is another metal, which is found in rechargeable batteries, UV stabilizers in older PVC cables and “phosphor” coatings in older cathode ray tubes. Long term exposure to Cadmium, a known carcinogen, can be inhaled from fumes and dust causing kidney and bone structure damage.

Incinerating e-waste without proper workplace and environmental regulations poses a risk because it generates dioxins, which can cause cancer and plague the human body and environment for long periods. Moreover, open burning, a common practice in developing countries receiving e-waste, releases toxic fumes and dust that can be easily inhaled and effect nearby food sources and water bodies. Some flame retardants like Brominated Flame Retardants (BFRs), which can be found in e-waste plastic to make electronic products more flame resistant, are emitted into the environment through e-waste dismantling and become dust and air. BFRs, which are fat-soluble, bioaccumulate causing neurological disorders and endocrine disruption. PBDEs (polybrominated diphenyl ethers), a class of BFRs, interfere in the brain development of animals and in the hormones associated with sexual development. Because of their toxicity, electronic manufacturers are phasing out BFRs.

5.2) International Effects

China receives the largest e-recycling volume, followed by India, Nigeria, and Ghana. Burning and dismantling e-waste is the main driver of atmospheric pollution and is the primary workplace exposure. In China, e-waste, like printed circuit boards, are shredded and melted in an open fire to recover metals like solder and the left-over plastics are burnt off. Water is used in the process and, unlike in the US, is not treated and is later discharged to the nearest water body. In the case of Guiyu China, the region with the world's highest levels of cancer-causing dioxins , discharge water runs off into Lianjiang river. Some open air workshops in China use acid to recover valuable materials from e-waste and wastewater is transported to drainage pits, which can run off into other water bodies and severely impact freshwater ecosystems. In some cases, groundwater is contaminated from the acids of shredding and separating workshops

Children are particularly at risk of e-waste pollution harms. In Guiyu, 80% of the children suffer from respiratory diseases because children typically work in or live near waste disposal sites. Children in China also can experience elevated blood levels, skin damage, headaches, chronic gastritis, and duodenal ulcers due to e-waste recycling pollutants.

Sources: https://www.epa.gov/international-cooperation/cleaning-electronic-waste-e-waste https://www.epa.gov/hwgenerators/information-about-transboundary-shipments-hazardous-wastes ----GOOD FOR REGULATION SECTION http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/detox/electronics/the-e-waste-problem/where-does-e-waste-end-up/ https://ourworld.unu.edu/en/toxic-e-waste-dumped-in-poor-nations-says-united-nations http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/america-e-waste-gps-tracker-tells-all-earthfix/

EPA E-waste Contacts:

Stephanie Adrian E-mail: adrian.stephanie@epa.gov (202) 564-6444

Brenda Doroski E-mail: doroski.brenda@epa.gov (202) 343-9764