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| ⚫ | passed the [[Mann Act|White Slave Traffic Act]] (better known as the Mann Act), which made it a [[felony]] to transport women across state borders for the purpose of "prostitution or debauchery, or for any other immoral purpose." As more women were being trafficked from foreign countries, the US began passing immigration acts to curtail aliens from entering the country such as the [[Emergency Quota Act|Emergency Quota Act of 1921]] and the [[Immigration Act of 1924]]. Following the banning of immigrants during the 1920s, human trafficking was not considered a major issue until the 1990s.<ref name="candidate">Candidate, Jo Doezema Ph.D. "Loose women or lost women? The re-emergence of the myth of white slavery in contemporary discourses of trafficking in women." Gender issues 18.1 (1999): 23-50.</ref><ref name="donovan">Donovan, Brian. White slave crusades: race, gender, and anti-vice activism, 1887-1917. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2006.</ref> |
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{{other uses}} |
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{{see also|Slavery in medieval Europe}} |
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{{slavery}} |
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'''White slavery''', '''white slave trade''', and '''white slave traffic''' historically refer to the enslavement of Europeans by non-Europeans, as well as by Europeans, such as the [[Viking]]'s slaves or European [[Galley slave]]s. From Antiquity, European slaves were common during the reign of Ancient Rome. |
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Modern use of the term can also include [[sexual slavery]], [[forced prostitution]] and [[human trafficking]]. |
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==White Slave Trade== |
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===Barbary Slave Trade=== |
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{{main article|Barbary slave trade|Barbary corsairs}} |
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[[File:Inspecting New Arrivals by Giulio Rosati 2.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Giulio Rosati]], ''Inspection of New Arrivals'', 1858–1917, [[Circassian beauties]].]] |
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Slave markets flourished on the [[Barbary Coast]] of North Africa, in what is modern-day [[Morocco]], [[Algeria]], [[Tunisia]], and western [[Libya]], between the 16th and middle of the 18th century. |
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These markets prospered while the states were nominally under [[Ottoman Algeria|Ottoman suzerainty]], though, in reality, they were mostly autonomous. The [[North African]] slave markets traded in [[Arab slave trade|European slaves]] which were acquired by Barbary pirates in [[slave raid]]s on ships and by raids on coastal towns from Italy to Spain, Portugal, France, England, the Netherlands, and as far afield as [[Turkish Abductions|Iceland]]. Men, women, and children were captured to such a devastating extent that vast numbers of sea [[coast]] towns were abandoned. |
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According to Robert Davis, between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by Barbary pirates and sold as slaves in [[North Africa]] and [[Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>Davis, Robert. ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500-1800''.[https://www.amazon.com/dp/1403945519]</ref><ref name="researchnews.osu.edu">[http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm "When Europeans were slaves: Research suggests white slavery was much more common than previously believed"], ''Research News'', Ohio State University</ref> However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating: |
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{{quote|''"There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers - about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."''<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last=Carroll|first=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|last2=correspondent|first2=Africa|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>}} |
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Davis' numbers have been refuted by other historians, such as David Earle, who cautions that true picture of Europeans slaves is clouded by the fact the corsairs also seized non-Christian whites from eastern Europe and black people from west Africa.<ref name=Earle/> |
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In addition, the number of slaves traded was hyperactive, with exaggerated estimates relying on peak years to calculate averages for entire centuries, or millennia. Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records. Middle East expert, John Wright, cautions that modern estimates are based on back-calculations from human observation.<ref name=Wright>{{Cite news|last=Wright|first=John|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|year=2007|publisher=Routledge}}</ref> |
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Such observations, across the late 1500s and early 1600s observers, account for around 35,000 European Christian slaves held throughout this period on the Barbary Coast, across Tripoli, Tunis, but mostly in Algiers. The majority were sailors (particularly those who were English), taken with their ships, but others were fishermen and coastal villagers. However, most of these captives were people from lands close to Africa, particularly Spain and Italy.<ref name=BBC>{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 Feb 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref> |
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From bases on the Barbary coast, North Africa, the [[Barbary pirates]] raided ships traveling through the Mediterranean and along the northern and western coasts of Africa, plundering their cargo and enslaving the people they captured. From at least 1500, the pirates also conducted raids along seaside towns of Italy, Spain, France, England, the Netherlands and as far away as Iceland, capturing men, women and children. On some occasions, settlements such as [[Baltimore, County Cork|Baltimore]], [[Ireland]] were abandoned following the raid, only being resettled many years later. Between 1609 and 1616, England alone had 466 merchant ships lost to Barbary pirates.<ref>Rees Davies, [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml "British Slaves on the Barbary Coast"], [[BBC]], 1 July 2003</ref> |
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While Barbary corsairs looted the cargo of ships they captured, their primary goal was to capture people for sale as slaves or for ransom. Those who had family or friends who might ransom them were held captive, but not obliged to work; the most famous of these was the author [[Miguel de Cervantes]], who was held for almost five years. Others were sold into various types of servitude. Attractive women or boys could be used as [[sex slaves]]. Captives who converted to Islam were generally freed, since enslavement of Muslims was prohibited; but this meant that they could never return to their native countries.<ref>Diego de Haedo, ''Topografía e historia general de Argel'', 3 vols., Madrid, 1927-29.</ref><ref>Daniel Eisenberg, "¿Por qué volvió Cervantes de Argel?", in ''Ingeniosa invención: Essays on Golden Age Spanish Literature for Geoffrey L. Stagg in Honor of his Eighty-Fifth Birthday'', Newark, Delaware, Juan de la Cuesta, 1999, {{ISBN|9780936388830}}, pp. 241-253, http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/obra/por-qu-volvi-cervantes-de-argel-0/, retrieved 11/20/2014.</ref> |
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Sixteenth- and 17th-century customs statistics suggest that Istanbul's additional slave import from the [[Black Sea]] may have totaled around 2.5 million from 1450 to 1700.<ref>The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 3, AD 1420–AD 1804</ref> The markets declined after the loss of the [[Barbary Wars]] and finally ended in the 1830s, when the region was [[French conquest of Algeria|conquered by France]]. |
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===Slavic Slaves=== |
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{{main|Volga trade route|Trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks}} |
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[[Image:S. V. Ivanov. Trade negotiations in the country of Eastern Slavs. Pictures of Russian history. (1909).jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|The Rus trading slaves with the Khazars: ''Trade in the [[East Slavs|East Slavic]] Camp'' by [[Sergei Ivanov (painter)|Sergei Ivanov]] (1913)]] |
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The Volga trade route was established by the [[Varangians]] (Vikings) who settled in Northwestern Russia in the early 9th century. About {{convert|10|km|abbr=on|0}} south of the [[Volkhov River]] entry into [[Lake Ladoga]], they established a settlement called [[Staraya Ladoga|Ladoga]] (Old Norse: ''[[Aldeigjuborg]]'').<ref name="Brondsted">Brøndsted (1965), pp. 64–65</ref> It connected [[Northern Europe]] and Northwestern Russia with the [[Caspian Sea]], via the [[Volga River]]. The [[Rus' (people)|Rus]] used this route to trade with [[Muslim history#The Umayyad Caliphate|Muslim countries]] on the southern shores of the Caspian Sea, sometimes penetrating as far as [[Baghdad]]. The route functioned concurrently with the [[Dnieper]] trade route, better known as the [[trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks]], and lost its importance in the 11th century. |
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[[Saqaliba]] refers to [[Slavs|Slavic]] slaves, kidnapped from the coasts of Europe or in wars, as well as white [[Mercenary|mercenaries]] in the medieval [[Muslim world]], in the [[Middle East]], [[North Africa]], [[History of Islam in southern Italy|Sicily]] and [[Al-Andalus]]. Saqaliba served, or were forced to serve, in a multitude of ways: servants, [[harem]] [[concubines]], [[eunuch]]s, craftsmen, soldiers, and as [[Caliph]]'s guards. In [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]], [[Morocco]], [[Damascus]] and [[Sicily]], their military role may be compared with that of [[mamluk]]s in the [[Ottoman Empire]]. In Spain, Slavic eunuchs were so popular and widely distributed that they became synonymous with Saqāliba.<ref>''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery: A-K ; Vol. II, L-Z'', by [[Junius P. Rodriguez]]</ref> |
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===Christian Slavery in Muslim Spain=== |
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{{main|Slavery in Spain}} |
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[[File:Purchase of Christian captives from the Barbary States.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|The purchase of Christian captives by Catholic monks in the [[Barbary states]].]] |
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During the [[Al-Andalus]] (also known as Muslim Spain or Islamic Iberia), the [[Moors]] controlled much of the peninsula. They imported white Christian slaves from the 8th century until the [[Reconquista]] in the late 15th century. The slaves were exported from the Christian section of Spain, as well as Eastern Europe,sparking significant reaction from many in Christian Spain and many Christians still living in Muslim Spain. As the Muslims followed the same technique as Romans to capture slaves; seeking cities to ally with them. Soon after, Muslims were successful, taking Christian captives of 30,000 from Spain. In the eighth century slavery lasted longer due to “frequent cross-border skirmishes, interspersed between periods of major campaigns.” By the tenth century, in the eastern Mediterranean Byzantine Christian’s were captured by Muslims. Many of the raids designed by Muslims were created for a fast captive of prisoners. Therefore, Muslims restricted the control in order to keep captives from fleeing. The Iberian peninsula served as a base for further exports of slaves into other Muslim regions in Northern Africa.<ref name="Constable">Trade and traders in Muslim Spain, Fourth Series, Cambridge University Press, 1996.</ref> |
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===Ottoman Slave trade=== |
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{{main article|Ottoman slave trade}} |
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[[File:Captain walter croker horror stricken at algiers 1815.jpg|thumb|300px|1815 illustration of a British Captain horrified by seeing Christians worked as slaves in [[Algiers]].]] |
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Slavery was a legal and a significant part of the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire's]] economy and society.<ref>[http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~fisher/hst373/readings/inalcik6.html Supply of Slaves]</ref> The main sources of slaves were war captives and organized enslavement expeditions in Africa, Eastern Europe and [[Circassia]] in the Caucasus. It has been reported that the selling price of slaves fell after large military operations.<ref name="Spyropoulos">Spyropoulos Yannis, Slaves and freedmen in 17th- and early 18th-century Ottoman Crete, ''Turcica'', 46, 2015, p. 181, 182.</ref> Enslavement of Europeans was banned in the early 19th century, while slaves from other groups were allowed.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=TnVgKpqCxzQC&pg=PA28 Ottomans against Italians and Portuguese about (white slavery)].</ref> |
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Even after several measures to ban slavery in the late 19th century, the practice continued largely unabated into the early 20th century. As late as 1908, female slaves were still sold in the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="Dursteler2006">{{cite book|author=Eric Dursteler|title=Venetians in Constantinople: Nation, Identity, and Coexistence in the Early Modern Mediterranean|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LF8uer6PMfAC&pg=PA72|year=2006|publisher=JHU Press|isbn=978-0-8018-8324-8|page=72}}</ref> [[Sexual slavery]] was a central part of the Ottoman slave system throughout the history of the institution.<ref name="Schierbrand1886">{{cite news | title=Slaves sold to the Turk; How the vile traffic is still carried on in the East. Sights our correspondent saw for twenty dollars--in the house of a grand old Turk of a dealer.|author=Wolf Von Schierbrand|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=28 March 1886|url=http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=F70610FE3D5E15738DDDA10A94DB405B8684F0D3|accessdate=19 January 2011}}</ref><ref name="Zilfi2010">Madeline C. Zilfi ''Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire'' Cambridge University Press, 2010</ref> |
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===Crimean Khanate=== |
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{{main article|History of slavery in Asia|Crimean Khanate}} |
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{{see also|Crimean–Nogai raids into East Slavic lands}} |
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In the time of the Crimean Khanate, Crimeans engaged in frequent raids into the [[Danubian principalities]], [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth|Poland-Lithuania]], and [[Muscovy]]. For each captive, the khan received a fixed share (savğa) of 10 percent or 20 percent. The campaigns by Crimean forces categorize into "sefers", officially declared military operations led by the khans themselves, and ''çapuls,'' raids undertaken by groups of noblemen, sometimes illegally because they contravened treaties concluded by the khans with neighbouring rulers. For a long time, until the early 18th century, the khanate maintained a massive [[Slave Trade]] with the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East. [[Caffa]] was one of the best known and significant trading ports and slave markets.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157 Historical survey > Slave societies]</ref> Crimean Tatar raiders enslaved between 1 and 2 million slaves from Russia and Poland-Lithuania over the period 1500–1700.<ref>{{cite book|author=Galina I. Yermolenko|title=Roxolana in European Literature, History and Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xjyVS72I2ocC|accessdate=31 May 2012|date=15 July 2010|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|page=111|isbn=978-0-7546-6761-2}}</ref><ref>Darjusz Kołodziejczyk, as reported by {{cite web |author=Mikhail Kizilov |title=Slaves, Money Lenders, and Prisoner Guards:The Jews and the Trade in Slaves and Captivesin the Crimean Khanate |url=https://www.academia.edu/3706285/Slaves_Money_Lenders_and_Prisoner_Guards_The_Jews_and_the_Trade_in_Slaves_and_Captives_in_the_Crimean_Khanate |work=The Journal of Jewish Studies|year=2007|page=2}}</ref> [[Caffa]] (city on Crimean peninsula) was one of the best known and significant trading ports and slave markets.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/slavery-sociology Historical survey > Slave societies]</ref><ref>[https://www.britannica.com/place/Feodosiya Caffa]</ref> In 1769, a last major Tatar raid resulted in the capture of 20,000 Russian and Ruthenian slaves. |
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==European slavery== |
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{{see also|Slavery in Ireland|Slavery in Britain|Slavery in Spain|Slavery in Russia}} |
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===Slavery in Ancient Rome=== |
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{{main article|Slavery in ancient Rome}} |
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[[File:Roman collared slaves - Ashmolean Museum.jpg|thumb|Relief from Smyrna (present-day Izmir, Turkey) depicting a Roman soldier leading captives in chains]] |
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In Ancient Rome, slaves accounted for most of the means of industrial output in [[Roman commerce]]. Slaves were drawn from all over Europe and the Mediterranean, including Gaul, Hispania, North Africa, Syria, Germany, Britannia, the Balkans, and Greece. Generally, slaves in Italy were indigenous Italians,<ref>{{cite book |last=Santosuosso |first=Antonio |year=2001 |title=Storming the Heavens |publisher=Westview Press |isbn=978-0-8133-3523-0 |pp=43–44}}</ref> with a minority of foreigners (including both slaves and freedmen) born outside of Italy estimated at 5% of the total in the capital, where their number was largest, at its peak. |
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Slaves numbering in the tens of thousands were condemned to work in the mines or quarries, where conditions were notoriously brutal. ''Damnati in metallum'' ("those condemned to the mine") were convicts who lost their freedom as citizens (''libertas''), forfeited their property (''bona'') to the state, and became ''servi poenae'', slaves as a legal penalty. Their status under the law was different from that of other slaves; they could not buy their freedom, be sold, or be set free. They were expected to live and die in the mines.<ref>Alfred Michael Hirt, ''Imperial Mines and Quarries in the Roman World: Organizational Aspects 27–BC AD 235'' (Oxford University Press, 2010), sect. 3.3.</ref> Imperial slaves and freedmen (the ''familia Caesaris)'' worked in mine administration and management.<ref>Hirt, ''Imperial Mines and Quarries'', sect. 4.2.1.</ref> |
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In the Late Republic, about half the [[gladiator]]s who fought in Roman arenas were slaves, though the most skilled were often free volunteers.<ref>Alison Futrell, ''A Sourcebook on the Roman Games'' (Blackwell, 2006), p. 124.</ref> Successful gladiators were occasionally rewarded with freedom. However gladiators, being trained warriors and having access to weapons, were potentially the most dangerous slaves. At an earlier time, many gladiators had been soldiers taken captive in war. [[Spartacus]], who led the [[Third Servile War|great slave rebellion of 73-71 BCE]], was a rebel gladiator. |
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The slaves imported in Italy were native Europeans, and very few of them had extra European origin. This has been further confirmed by recent biochemical analysis of 166 skeletons from three non-elite imperial-era cemeteries in the vicinity of Rome (where the bulk of the slaves lived), which shows that only one individual definitely came from outside of Europe (North Africa), and another two possibly did, but results are inconclusive. In the rest of the Italian peninsula, the fraction of non European slaves was definitively much lower than that.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ajpa.20541/abstract|title= Isotopic evidence for age-related immigration to imperial Rome| doi=10.1002/ajpa.20541 | volume=132|journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology|pages=510–519}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0147585|title=Killgrove and Montgomery. "All Roads Lead to Rome: Exploring Human Migration to the Eternal City through Biochemistry of Skeletons from Two Imperial-Era Cemeteries (1st-3rd c AD)". | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0147585 | volume=11|journal=PLOS ONE|page=e0147585}}</ref> |
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===Indentured Servitude=== |
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{{main article|Indentured servitude|Irish indentured servants}} |
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In the modern era, many whites in England, Ireland and [[British North America]] were [[indentured servant]]s. This is not a form of slavery, but a contracted labor system of [[unfree labor]] in which an [[indenture]] agrees to work for a particular employer for a fixed period of time in exchange for a specific payment, or other benefit such as to meet a legal obligation like [[debt bondage]]. Upon completion of the contract, indentured servants were granted freedom or occasionally plots of land.<ref name=Stack>{{cite news|last=Stack|first=Liam|title=Debunking a Myth: The Irish Were Not Slaves, Too|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/17/us/irish-slaves-myth.html?_r=0|date=17 Mar 2017|publisher=New York Times}}</ref> |
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For example, many Irish willingly agreed to provide up to seven years of labor in return for passage to the new world and for food, housing, and shelter during their indenture. At the end of this period, their employers were legally required to grant them "freedom dues," in the form of either land or capital. Other servants were transported unwillingly: as [[political prisoner]]s, [[vagrants]], or people who had been defined as "undesirable" by the state.<ref name="Beckles">{{cite journal|first1=Hilary|last1=McD. Beckles|year=1990|title=A "riotous and Unruly Lot": Irish Indentured Servants and Freemen in the English West Indies, 1644-1713|url=|journal=The William and Mary Quarterly|volume=47|issue=4|pages=503–22|doi=10.2307/2937974}}</ref> |
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Beyond this, there is are large legal differences between indentured servitude and chattel slavery. Unlike slaves, servants were considered legally human, their servitude was contractually limited to a finite period of time, nor were their descendants burdened with their unfree status.<ref name=Stack/> |
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Between 50 and 67 percent of white immigrants to the [[Thirteen Colonies|American colonies]], from the 1630s and American Revolution, had traveled under [[indenture]].<ref>Galenson 1984: 1</ref> |
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==White Slave Traffic== |
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{{main article|International Agreement for the suppression of the White Slave Traffic}} |
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The International Agreement for the suppression of the White Slave Traffic is a series of anti–[[human trafficking]] treaties, the first of which was first negotiated in Paris in 1904. It was one of the first multilateral treaties to address issues of slavery and human trafficking. The [[1926 Slavery Convention|Slavery, Servitude, Forced Labour and Similar Institutions and Practices Convention of 1926]] and the [[International Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Women of Full Age]] of 1933 are similar documents. |
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===White Slave Traffic Act of 1910=== |
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{{main article|Mann Act}} |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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Revision as of 20:03, 19 March 2018
passed the White Slave Traffic Act (better known as the Mann Act), which made it a felony to transport women across state borders for the purpose of "prostitution or debauchery, or for any other immoral purpose." As more women were being trafficked from foreign countries, the US began passing immigration acts to curtail aliens from entering the country such as the Emergency Quota Act of 1921 and the Immigration Act of 1924. Following the banning of immigrants during the 1920s, human trafficking was not considered a major issue until the 1990s.[1][2]
See also
- 1926 Slavery Convention
- History of slavery
- History of slavery in the Muslim world
- International Agreement for the suppression of the White Slave Traffic
- International Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Women and Children
- Mamluk
- Slavery in antiquity
- Slavery in medieval Europe
- White slave propaganda
- White-Slave Traffic Act
References
- ^ Candidate, Jo Doezema Ph.D. "Loose women or lost women? The re-emergence of the myth of white slavery in contemporary discourses of trafficking in women." Gender issues 18.1 (1999): 23-50.
- ^ Donovan, Brian. White slave crusades: race, gender, and anti-vice activism, 1887-1917. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2006.