Gender expression: Difference between revisions
Re-added the history section. Also added a new section that talks about Judith Butler's heterosexuality matrix and how gender expression is often confused with sexuality. While this isn't a page on sexuality I thought it was wise to address how many people confuse the two or assume they are at least related. |
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The term ''gender expression'' is used in the [[Yogyakarta Principles]], which concern the application of international [[human rights law]] in relation to sexual orientation, gender identity, gender expression and [[Sex characteristics (legal term)|sex characteristics]].<ref name="ypplus10">[http://www.yogyakartaprinciples.org/principles-en/yp10/ Yogyakarta Principles plus 10]</ref> |
The term ''gender expression'' is used in the [[Yogyakarta Principles]], which concern the application of international [[human rights law]] in relation to sexual orientation, gender identity, gender expression and [[Sex characteristics (legal term)|sex characteristics]].<ref name="ypplus10">[http://www.yogyakartaprinciples.org/principles-en/yp10/ Yogyakarta Principles plus 10]</ref> |
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== History == |
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Most of the history surrounding gender expression has been tied to the traditional ideals of feminine and masculine. [[Androgyny]] was something that wasn’t accepted in many Western countries, but there have been some cultures that have shown understandings of multiple genders and expressions.<ref name=":02">Drescher, Jack. “Queer Diagnoses: Parallels and Contrasts in the History of Homosexuality, Gender Variance, and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual.” ''Archives of Sexual Behavior'', vol. 39, no. 2, 2009, pp. 427–460., doi:10.1007/s10508-009-9531-5. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10508-009-9531-5</ref> |
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For example, Native American and Polynesian societies had names for more than just male and female genders.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|title=Third Sex, Third Gender: beyond Sexual Dimorphism in Culture and History.|last=Herdt|first=Gilbert|publisher=Zone Books|year=2003|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref> Many Native American tribes recognized five genders; female, two spirit female, male, two spirit male, and transgender.<ref>Brayboy, Duane. “Two Spirits, One Heart, Five Genders.” ''IndianCountryToday.com'', Indian Country Today, 7 Sept. 2017, newsmaven.io/indiancountrytoday/archive/two-spirits-one-heart-five-genders-9UH_xnbfVEWQHWkjNn0rQQ/.</ref> Polynesian had a third gender called, “[[Fa'afafine|Fa’afafines]]”. Many anthropologists say that while sexuality made not have been as understood, gender identity and expression was. Feminine and masculine didn’t always apply to someone’s sex at birth.<ref name=":12" /> |
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In European cultures, straying outside of the gender expressions of masculine or feminine were stigmatized. Androgyny was seen as monstrous. People who strayed from traditional gender expressions were seen as deviant and often were highly sexualized. While it wasn’t accepted, it seems that people were aware of androgyny. Traces of it can be seen in art and culture, especially in ancient Greek and Roman societies. An example is [[Bacchus (Michelangelo)|Michelangelo’s ''Bacchus'']] which depicts [[Dionysus|Bacchus]], the Roman god of wine. The figure seems to be visibly drunk and his body is both masculine and feminine, and it was originally banned by the Cardinal.<ref name=":12" /> |
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Being aware didn’t mean that gender expression wasn’t criminalized. [[Cross-dressing|Crossdressing]] was banned in various countries.<ref name=":02" /> Even though historically, hermaphrodites were the closest understood example of varying gender identity and expression, they didn’t have the same rights. It was illegal in 1845 for [[Hermaphrodite|hermaphrodites]] to marry in South Carolina and this law remained for a while. Intersex individuals also couldn’t own land unless they presented themselves as more masculine. Often times, the government of judicial system choose whether intersex individuals would express themselves as male or female. Expressing yourself as both or somewhere in between was not allowed or really understood.<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal|last=Katrina|first=Rose|date=2004|title=A History Of Gender Variance in Pre-20th Century Anglo-American Law.|url=https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/tjwl14&div=8&g_sent=1&casa_token=&collection=journals|journal=Texas Journal of Women and the Law|volume=14|pages=|via=}}</ref> |
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=== Thomas/Thomasine Hall === |
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One famous examples of an intersex man in American history is Thomas or [[Thomas(ine) Hall|Thomasine Hall]]. They were the first person to be declared neither male nor female by the court of Virginia in 1629. There is documentation that they also went back and forth between male and female throughout their lifetime. Thomas/Thomasine was raised female but expressed a male identity in order to serve in the military. Once they wanted to return to Plymouth, they changed their identity to female, but then went back to expressing themselves as more masculine to journey to Chesapeake in order to work as an indentured servant.<ref name=":22" /> |
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It was the earliest and largest case of a person not being defined as male or female. It also started to show society that gender expressions could vary. A person could go back and forth between male and female or identify as somewhere in between. Still, Thomas/Thomasine was not accepted, and people did not understand his identity. If he wasn't intersex, he would have faced more consequences.<ref name=":22" /> |
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=== Gender Roles and Expression === |
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Gender roles still affect society in large ways. Whether it is what shoes and clothes men and women should wear, if men should cry, and what jobs women should seek out. Many culture’s definition of masculine, feminine, and gender as still very black and white. Historically gender roles were even more intense. Women were supposed to be at home and raise children while men were supposed to provide for the family and show little emotion.<ref name=":02" /> Feminine men were seen as weak and strong women were ostracized. Many women were burned at the stake and accused of being witches during the 1692 [[Salem witch trials|Salem Witch Trials]]. These women were seen as masculine and strong and were punished because of it.<ref>Colburn, Josephine. “Gender and the Salem Witchcraft Trials.” ''Western Oregon University'', 2012. http://www.wou.edu/history/files/2015/08/Colburn-Josephine1.pdf</ref> |
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Historically homosexual men were seen as more feminine, and people explained this shift from how men were supposed to behave by saying that gay men has different brains. Sexuality and gender expression were seen as the same thing. If you didn’t behave as extremely masculine you were assumed to be gay.<ref name=":02" /> In the 1970s homosexuality laws made it illegal for doctors to say that patients who displayed gender variance suffered from mental illness. This US law started to get rid of the connection between sexuality and gender expression, but the stigma is still a common misconception today.<ref name=":22" /> |
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== Confusion Between Gender Expression and Sexuality == |
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While gender expression doesn’t connect to sexuality, homosexual individuals often are misinterpreted as more masculine if lesbian and more feminine if gay. These stigmas can lead to people mis-interpreting an individual’s gender expression based on their sexuality. Studies on adolescents showed that gay individuals who didn’t express the gender that they were assigned were seen as less acceptable. Individuals who express themselves with their assigned gender typically face less social harassment and discrimination.<ref>Horn, Stacey S. “Adolescents’ Acceptance of Same-Sex Peers Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Expression.” ''Journal of Youth and Adolescence'', vol. 36, no. 3, 2007, pp. 373–373., doi:10.1007/s10964-007-9176-4.</ref> |
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The most common examples are in sports. Amélie Mauresmo, a female tennis player, exhibited the same gender expression as her fellow female athletes, but because she was openly gay, Mauresmo was seen as more masculine than other players. Had her sexuality been a secret, her visible gender expression wouldn’t have differentiated her from other athletes.<ref>Tredway, Kristi. “Judith Butler Redux – the Heterosexual Matrix and the Out Lesbian Athlete: Amélie Mauresmo, Gender Performance, and Women’s Professional Tennis.” ''Journal of the Philosophy of Sport'', vol. 41, no. 2, 2013, pp. 163–176., doi:10.1080/00948705.2013.785420.</ref> |
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=== Judith Butler’s Heterosexuality Matrix === |
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The Heterosexuality Matrix focuses on gender, sex, and sexuality, and was created by [[Judith Butler]]. The original theory explains that people often assume someone’s sexuality based off of their visible gender and sex. In its simplest terms people assume the third category based off the other two. Overtime, this theory has diminished in accuracy as more people are open with their sexualities. Now people tend to assume someone’s gender expression based off their sex and sexuality, as gay people are often seen as behaving more like the opposite sex. Gender expression is often assumed, and this theory can help explain why.<ref>Disch, Lisa. “Judith Butler and the Politics of the Performative.” ''Political Theory'', vol. 27, no. 4, 1999, pp. 545–559., doi:10.1177/0090591799027004006.</ref> |
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== Victimization == |
== Victimization == |
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== Bibliography == |
== Bibliography == |
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* Brayboy, Duane. “Two Spirits, One Heart, Five Genders.” ''IndianCountryToday.com'', Indian Country Today, 7 Sept. 2017, newsmaven.io/indiancountrytoday/archive/two-spirits-one-heart-five-genders-9UH_xnbfVEWQHWkjNn0rQQ/. |
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* Colburn, Josephine. “Gender and the Salem Witchcraft Trials.” ''Western Oregon University'', 2012. |
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* Disch, Lisa. “Judith Butler and the Politics of the Performative.” ''Political Theory'', vol. 27, no. 4, 1999, pp. 545–559., doi:10.1177/0090591799027004006. |
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* Drescher, Jack. “Queer Diagnoses: Parallels and Contrasts in the History of Homosexuality, Gender Variance, and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual.” ''Archives of Sexual Behavior'', vol. 39, no. 2, 2009, pp. 427–460., doi:10.1007/s10508-009-9531-5. |
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* Herdt, Gilbert H. ''Third Sex, Third Gender: beyond Sexual Dimorphism in Culture and History''. Zone Books, 2003. |
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* Horn, Stacey S. “Adolescents’ Acceptance of Same-Sex Peers Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Expression.” ''Journal of Youth and Adolescence'', vol. 36, no. 3, 2007, pp. 373–373., doi:10.1007/s10964-007-9176-4. |
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* Rose, Katrina c. “A History Of Gender Variance in Pre-20th Century Anglo-American Law.” ''Texas Journal of Women and the Law'', vol. 14, 2004. |
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* Serano, Julia (2016). ''Whipping Girl: A transsexual woman on sexism and the scapegoating of femininity'' (2nd ed.), Berkeley, CA: Seal Press. |
* Serano, Julia (2016). ''Whipping Girl: A transsexual woman on sexism and the scapegoating of femininity'' (2nd ed.), Berkeley, CA: Seal Press. |
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* Tredway, Kristi. “Judith Butler Redux – the Heterosexual Matrix and the Out Lesbian Athlete: Amélie Mauresmo, Gender Performance, and Women’s Professional Tennis.” ''Journal of the Philosophy of Sport'', vol. 41, no. 2, 2013, pp. 163–176., doi:10.1080/00948705.2013.785420. |
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== External links == |
== External links == |
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Revision as of 02:52, 27 March 2019
 | It has been suggested that this article be merged into Gender role. (Discuss) Proposed since December 2018. |
A gender expression is a person's behavior, mannerisms, interests, and appearance that are associated with gender in a particular cultural context, specifically with the categories of femininity or masculinity. This also includes gender roles. These categories rely on stereotypes about gender.
Defining gender expression
Gender expression typically reflects a person's gender identity (their internal sense of their own gender), but this is not always the case.[1][2] Gender expression is separate and independent both from sexual orientation and gender assigned at birth. A type of gender expression that is considered atypical for a person's externally perceived gender may be described as gender non-conforming.
In men and boys, typical or masculine gender expression is often described as manly, while atypical or feminine expression is known as effeminate. In girls and young women, atypically masculine expression is called tomboyish. In lesbian and queer women, masculine and feminine expressions are known as butch and femme respectively. A mixture of typical and atypical expression may be described as androgynous. A type of expression that is perceived as neither typically feminine or masculine can be described as gender-neutral or undifferentiated.
The term gender expression is used in the Yogyakarta Principles, which concern the application of international human rights law in relation to sexual orientation, gender identity, gender expression and sex characteristics.[3]
Victimization
In terms of gender expression, there are various studies have researched and examined the relationship between gender expression and childhood. Simply put, if one’s gender expression is seen as ‘gender non conforming’, it has been related with being bullied, such as childhood harassment, and parental physical abuse among sexual minority men in both the US and Austria. Furthermore, gender nonconformity in adulthood among gay and bisexual men has been associated with parental, maternal, and peer rejection in childhood. Not only males, but in a study that included both male and female youth, LGBs who were gender nonconforming reported more victimization experiences – it is possible that a similar association with adverse childhood experiences holds for sexual minority women who are gender non conforming. Although this issue has not yet been fully examined and researched, a few studies have suggested that gender non conformity among women may be positively associated with their victimization as children. In a survey administered to the U.S. army soldiers, current masculinity among women – seen as macho traits such as arrogance and boastfulness – was significantly associated with both childhood physical and emotional abuse, but childhood sexual abuse was associated with traditionally ‘feminine’ current characteristics.[4]
However, not only sexual minorities are experiencing sexual orientation and gender expression (SOGE) – based victimization, but also heterosexuals as well. SOGE – based victimization is associated with a range of health and academic concerns such as greater depressive and anxiety symptoms, substance use, lower school belonging, and greater truancy. So, SOGE – based victimization highlights the importance of incorporating both individual and contextual factors related to bias and discrimination that contribute to school truancy for sexual minority and heterosexual students; students indirectly related truancy, which gives them to feeling more unsafe at school. Furthermore, over and above student’s own direct experiences of SOGE based victimization, their perceptions of a negative SOGE – based school climate accounted for even higher rates of truancy and associated with bivariate level. Conspicuously, the size of this association did not differ for heterosexual and sexual minority youth. Even though the majority of prior research on SOGE based victimization has been conducted among sexual minority students, more recent studies have shown that heterosexual students also experience this type of victimization, such as bullying or harassment based on students’ actual or perceived sexual orientation and gender expression (SOGE) – and with similar consequences.[5]
Epidemiological data suggest that gay men are at particular risk for such crime, comprising over 53 percent of those targeted in bias – motivated offenses. However, it is notable that of those men victimized by the most extreme forms of crime, anti – gay homicide, it has been estimated that 8 percent of this population were heterosexual men who likely deviated from gender role norms of behavior and were targeted on the basis of perpetrator assumptions about their sexual orientation - statistics clearly establish the deviation from heterosexual norms in both gay and heterosexual men as a risk factor for victimization. The ultimate reason that the statistics have been established such a significant victimization between heterosexual men and homosexual men is because of the theory of ‘Exclusively Masculine Identity’. It posits that men strive to achieve and maintain an ideal self that marked by masculine characteristics, and that this masculinized ideal self is accompanied by a strong avoidance of an undesired self, which marked by feminine characteristics. It is true that researchers have long included anti – femininity as a necessary component of the traditional masculine role, which predicts the social expression of masculinity on behavior that reduce any stimuli perceived as feminine. It follows the possession of a masculinized ideal self, and a feminized undesired self, as a part and parcel of traditional or exclusive masculine identity, may largely explain widespread misogynistic and heterosexist attitudes. There are several empirical studies conducted under laboratory condition – in the United States – and shown that the violations of exclusive masculine identity are introduced through the depictions two men kissing (male – male physical and sexual intimacy), which aggression has been measured in terms of shocks administered to ostensible opponents under the guise of a reaction time component. These studies have consistently yielded evidence for men’s increased aggression toward gay men, especially when men’s increased aggression toward gay men and endorse negative attitudes toward male homosexuality. Furthermore, women’s non conforming gender expression communicates gender through behavioral and other over cues, such as attire, hair style, body posture, mannerisms, increase risk of aggressive victimization – either showing less feminine or more feminine would cause the severity of victimization at different level. These data suggest that gender expression may also play an important role in the perpetration of bias motivated aggression against men, an effect that may be overlooked when examined from an anti gay framework.[6]
See also
References
- ^ Summers, Randal W. (2016). Social Psychology: How Other People Influence Our Thoughts and Actions [2 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 232. ISBN 9781610695923.
- ^ American Psychological Association (December 2015). "Guidelines for Psychological Practice With Transgender and Gender Nonconforming People" (PDF). American Psychologist. 70 (9): 861. doi:10.1037/a0039906.
- ^ Yogyakarta Principles plus 10
- ^ Lehavot, Keren; Molina, Yamile; Simoni, Jane M. (September 2012). "Childhood Trauma, Adult Sexual Assault, and Adult Gender Expression among Lesbian and Bisexual Women". Sex Roles. 67 (5–6): 272–284. doi:10.1007/s11199-012-0171-1. ISSN 0360-0025. PMC 3758810. PMID 24003263.
- ^ Poteat, V. Paul; Berger, Christian; Dantas, Julio (2017-10-02). "How victimization, climate, and safety around sexual orientation and gender expression relate to truancy". Journal of LGBT Youth. 14 (4): 424–435. doi:10.1080/19361653.2017.1365037. ISSN 1936-1653.
- ^ Sloan, Colleen A.; Berke, Danielle S.; Zeichner, Amos (February 2015). "Bias-motivated Aggression against Men: Gender Expression and Sexual Orientation as Risk Factors for Victimization". Sex Roles. 72 (3–4): 140–149. doi:10.1007/s11199-014-0443-z. ISSN 0360-0025.
Bibliography
- Serano, Julia (2016). Whipping Girl: A transsexual woman on sexism and the scapegoating of femininity (2nd ed.), Berkeley, CA: Seal Press.