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== Causes for decrease ==
== Causes for decrease ==
[[File:Population bottleneck.svg|thumb|250x250px|Population bottleneck can decrease genetic viability leading to possible extinction <ref name=":2" />]]
[[File:Population bottleneck.svg|thumb|250x250px|Population bottleneck can decrease genetic viability leading to possible extinction <ref name=":2" />]]
The main cause of a decrease in genetic viability is loss of [[habitat]].<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Vonholdt BM, Stahler DR, Smith DW, Earl DA, Pollinger JP, Wayne RK | title = The genealogy and genetic viability of reintroduced Yellowstone grey wolves | journal = Molecular Ecology | volume = 17 | issue = 1 | pages = 252–74 | date = January 2008 | pmid = 17877715 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-294X.2007.03468.x }}</ref><ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Boshier D |title=Agroforestry and Biodiversity Conservation in Tropical Landscapes.|publisher=Island Press, USA|year=2004|pages=290–314}}</ref> This loss can occur because of, for example [[urbanization]] or deforestation causing [[habitat fragmentation]].<ref name=":3" /> Natural events like earthquakes, floods or fires can also cause loss of habitat.<ref name=":3" /> Eventually, loss of habitat could lead to a [[population bottleneck]].<ref name=":2" /> In a small population, the risk of inbreeding will increase drastically which could lead to a decrease in genetic viability.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite book| vauthors = Young AG, Clarke GM, Clarke GM, Cowlishaw G |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hk452JHmPrcC&pg=PP1&dq=population+bottleneck+genetic+viability#q=population%20bottleneck%20genetic%20viability|title=Genetics, Demography and Viability of Fragmented Populations|date=2000-10-12|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-79421-3|language=en}}</ref> If they are specific in their diets, this can also lead to habitat isolation and reproductive constraints, leading to greater population bottleneck, and decrease in genetic viability.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhang B, Li M, Zhang Z, Goossens B, Zhu L, Zhang S, Hu J, Bruford MW, Wei F | display-authors = 6 | title = Genetic viability and population history of the giant panda, putting an end to the "evolutionary dead end"? | journal = Molecular Biology and Evolution | volume = 24 | issue = 8 | pages = 1801–10 | date = August 2007 | pmid = 17513881 | doi = 10.1093/molbev/msm099 | url = https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article/24/8/1801/1107947 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Traditional [[artificial propagation]] can also lead to decreases in genetic viability in some species.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Reisenbichler |first1=Reginald R. |last2=Rubin |first2=Stephen P. |title=Genetic changes from artificial propagation of Pacific salmon affect the productivity and viability of supplemented populations |journal=ICES Journal of Marine Science |date=August 1, 1999 |volume=56 |issue=4 |pages=459-466}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=McClure |first1=Michelle M. |last2=Utter |first2=Fred M. |last3=Baldwin |first3=Casey |last4=Carmichael |first4=Richard W. |last5=Hassemer |first5=Peter F. |last6=Howell |first6=Philip J. |last7=Spruell |first7=Paul |last8=Cooney |first8=Thomas D. |last9=Schaller |first9=Howard A. |last10=Petrosky |first10=Charles E. |title=Evolutionary effects of alternative artificial propagation programs: implications for viability of endangered anadromous salmonids |journal=Evolutionary Applications |date=April 28, 2008 |volume=1 |issue=2}}</ref>
The main cause of a decrease in genetic viability is loss of [[habitat]].<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Vonholdt BM, Stahler DR, Smith DW, Earl DA, Pollinger JP, Wayne RK | title = The genealogy and genetic viability of reintroduced Yellowstone grey wolves | journal = Molecular Ecology | volume = 17 | issue = 1 | pages = 252–74 | date = January 2008 | pmid = 17877715 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-294X.2007.03468.x }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=|first=|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/65287651|title=Agroforestry and biodiversity conservation in tropical landscapes|date=2004|publisher=Island Press|others=Schroth, G. (Goetz)|year=|isbn=1-4237-6551-6|location=Washington|pages=290–314|oclc=65287651}}</ref> This loss can occur because of, for example [[urbanization]] or deforestation causing [[habitat fragmentation]].<ref name=":3" /> Natural events like earthquakes, floods or fires can also cause loss of habitat.<ref name=":3" /> Eventually, loss of habitat could lead to a [[population bottleneck]].<ref name=":2" /> In a small population, the risk of inbreeding will increase drastically which could lead to a decrease in genetic viability.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite book| vauthors = Young AG, Clarke GM, Clarke GM, Cowlishaw G |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hk452JHmPrcC&pg=PP1&dq=population+bottleneck+genetic+viability#q=population%20bottleneck%20genetic%20viability|title=Genetics, Demography and Viability of Fragmented Populations|date=2000-10-12|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-79421-3|language=en}}</ref> If they are specific in their diets, this can also lead to habitat isolation and reproductive constraints, leading to greater population bottleneck, and decrease in genetic viability.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhang B, Li M, Zhang Z, Goossens B, Zhu L, Zhang S, Hu J, Bruford MW, Wei F | display-authors = 6 | title = Genetic viability and population history of the giant panda, putting an end to the "evolutionary dead end"? | journal = Molecular Biology and Evolution | volume = 24 | issue = 8 | pages = 1801–10 | date = August 2007 | pmid = 17513881 | doi = 10.1093/molbev/msm099 | url = https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article/24/8/1801/1107947 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Traditional [[artificial propagation]] can also lead to decreases in genetic viability in some species.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Reisenbichler |first1=Reginald R. |last2=Rubin |first2=Stephen P. |title=Genetic changes from artificial propagation of Pacific salmon affect the productivity and viability of supplemented populations |journal=ICES Journal of Marine Science |date=August 1, 1999 |volume=56 |issue=4 |pages=459-466}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=McClure |first1=Michelle M. |last2=Utter |first2=Fred M. |last3=Baldwin |first3=Casey |last4=Carmichael |first4=Richard W. |last5=Hassemer |first5=Peter F. |last6=Howell |first6=Philip J. |last7=Spruell |first7=Paul |last8=Cooney |first8=Thomas D. |last9=Schaller |first9=Howard A. |last10=Petrosky |first10=Charles E. |title=Evolutionary effects of alternative artificial propagation programs: implications for viability of endangered anadromous salmonids |journal=Evolutionary Applications |date=April 28, 2008 |volume=1 |issue=2}}</ref>


== Population conservation ==
== Population conservation ==

Revision as of 13:38, 3 February 2021

Main article: Natural selection

Genetic viability is the ability of the genes present to allow a cell, organism or population to survive and reproduce.[1][2] The term is generally used to mean the chance or ability of a population to avoid the problems of inbreeding.[1] Less commonly genetic viability can also be used in respect to a single cell or on an individual level.[1]

Inbreeding depletes heterozygosity of the genome, meaning there is a greater chance of identical alleles at a locus.[1] When these alleles are non-beneficial, homozygosity could cause problems for genetic viability.[1] These problems could include effects on the individual fitness (higher mortality, slower growth, more frequent developmental defects, reduced mating ability, lower fecundity, greater susceptibility to disease, lowered ability to withstand stress, reduced intra- and inter-specific competitive ability) or effects on the entire population fitness (depressed population growth rate, reduced regrowth ability, reduced ability to adapt to environmental change).[3] See Inbreeding depression. When a population of plants or animals loses their genetic viability, their chance of going extinct increases.[4]

Necessary conditions

To be genetically viable, a population of plants or animals requires a certain amount of genetic diversity and a certain population size.[5] For long-term genetic viability, the population size should consist of enough breeding pairs to maintain genetic diversity.[6] The precise effective population size can be calculated using a minimum viable population analysis.[7]  Higher genetic diversity and a larger population size will decrease the negative effects of genetic drift and inbreeding in a population.[3] When adequate measures have been met, the genetic viability of a population will increase.[8]

Causes for decrease

Population bottleneck can decrease genetic viability leading to possible extinction [3]

The main cause of a decrease in genetic viability is loss of habitat.[4][9][10] This loss can occur because of, for example urbanization or deforestation causing habitat fragmentation.[4] Natural events like earthquakes, floods or fires can also cause loss of habitat.[4] Eventually, loss of habitat could lead to a population bottleneck.[3] In a small population, the risk of inbreeding will increase drastically which could lead to a decrease in genetic viability.[3][4][11] If they are specific in their diets, this can also lead to habitat isolation and reproductive constraints, leading to greater population bottleneck, and decrease in genetic viability.[12] Traditional artificial propagation can also lead to decreases in genetic viability in some species.[13][14]

Population conservation

Habitat protection is associated with more allelic richness and heterozygosity than in unprotected habitats.[15] Reduced habitat fragmentation and increased landscape permeability can promote allelic richness by facilitating gene flow between populations that are isolated or smaller.[15]

The minimum viable population needed to maintain genetic viability is where the loss of genetic variation because of small population size (genetic drift) is equal to genetic variation gained through mutation.[16] When the numbers of one sex is too low, there may be a need for crossbreeding to maintain viability.[17]

Analyzing

When genetic viability seems to be decreasing within a population, a population viability analysis (PVA) can be done to assess the risk of extinction of this species.[18][19][20] The result of a PVA could determine whether further action is needed regarding the preservation of a species.[18]

Applications

Genetic viability is applied by wildlife management staff in zoos, aquariums or other such ex situ habitats.[21] They use the knowledge of the animals' genetics, usually through their pedigrees, to calculate the PVA and manage the population viability.[21]

References

  1. ^ a b c d e Hartl, Daniel L. (2020-06-25). A Primer of Population Genetics and Genomics (4 ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oso/9780198862291.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-886229-1.
  2. ^ Luo, L; Zhang, Y-M; Xu, S (10 November 2004). "A quantitative genetics model for viability selection". Heredity. 94 (3): 347–355. doi:10.1038/sj.hdy.6800615. ISSN 0018-067X.
  3. ^ a b c d e Lacy RC (1997-05-21). "Importance of Genetic Variation to the Viability of Mammalian Populations". Journal of Mammalogy. 78 (2): 320–335. doi:10.2307/1382885. JSTOR 1382885.
  4. ^ a b c d e Robert, Alexandre (2011-09-19). "Find the weakest link. A comparison between demographic, genetic and demo-genetic metapopulation extinction times". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 11 (1): 260. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-11-260. ISSN 1471-2148. PMC 3185286. PMID 21929788.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  5. ^ Tensen L, van Vuuren BJ, Du Plessis C, Marneweck DG (2019-06-01). "African wild dogs: Genetic viability of translocated populations across South Africa". Biological Conservation. 234: 131–139. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2019.03.033.
  6. ^ Cegelski CC, Waits LP, Anderson NJ, Flagstad O, Strobeck C, Kyle CJ (2006-04-01). "Genetic diversity and population structure of wolverine (Gulo gulo) populations at the southern edge of their current distribution in North Americawith implications for genetic viability". Conservation Genetics. 7 (2): 197–211. doi:10.1007/s10592-006-9126-9. S2CID 44217068.
  7. ^ Nunney L, Campbell KA (July 1993). "Assessing minimum viable population size: Demography meets population genetics". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 8 (7): 234–9. doi:10.1016/0169-5347(93)90197-W. PMID 21236157.
  8. ^ Zhang B, Li M, Zhang Z, Goossens B, Zhu L, Zhang S, et al. (August 2007). "Genetic viability and population history of the giant panda, putting an end to the "evolutionary dead end"?". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 24 (8): 1801–10. doi:10.1093/molbev/msm099. PMID 17513881.
  9. ^ Vonholdt BM, Stahler DR, Smith DW, Earl DA, Pollinger JP, Wayne RK (January 2008). "The genealogy and genetic viability of reintroduced Yellowstone grey wolves". Molecular Ecology. 17 (1): 252–74. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2007.03468.x. PMID 17877715.
  10. ^ Agroforestry and biodiversity conservation in tropical landscapes. Schroth, G. (Goetz). Washington: Island Press. 2004. pp. 290–314. ISBN 1-4237-6551-6. OCLC 65287651.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  11. ^ Young AG, Clarke GM, Clarke GM, Cowlishaw G (2000-10-12). Genetics, Demography and Viability of Fragmented Populations. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-79421-3.
  12. ^ Zhang B, Li M, Zhang Z, Goossens B, Zhu L, Zhang S, et al. (August 2007). "Genetic viability and population history of the giant panda, putting an end to the "evolutionary dead end"?". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 24 (8): 1801–10. doi:10.1093/molbev/msm099. PMID 17513881.
  13. ^ Reisenbichler, Reginald R.; Rubin, Stephen P. (August 1, 1999). "Genetic changes from artificial propagation of Pacific salmon affect the productivity and viability of supplemented populations". ICES Journal of Marine Science. 56 (4): 459–466.
  14. ^ McClure, Michelle M.; Utter, Fred M.; Baldwin, Casey; Carmichael, Richard W.; Hassemer, Peter F.; Howell, Philip J.; Spruell, Paul; Cooney, Thomas D.; Schaller, Howard A.; Petrosky, Charles E. (April 28, 2008). "Evolutionary effects of alternative artificial propagation programs: implications for viability of endangered anadromous salmonids". Evolutionary Applications. 1 (2).
  15. ^ a b Dellinger, Justin A.; Gustafson, Kyle D.; Gammons, Daniel J.; Ernest, Holly B.; Torres, Steven G. (September 1, 2020). "Minimum habitat thresholds required for conserving mountain lion genetic diversity". Ecology and Evolution. 10 (19). doi:10.1002/ece3.6723.
  16. ^ Trail, Lochran W.; Brook, Barry W.; Frankham, Richard R.; Corey J.A., Bradshaw (January 2010). "Pragmatic population viability targets in a rapidly changing world". Biological Conservation. 143 (1): 28-34. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2009.09.001.
  17. ^ Piyasatian, N.; Kinghorn, B. P. (2003). "Balancing genetic diversity, genetic merit and population viability in conservation programmes". Journal of Animal Breeding and Genetics. 120 (3): 137–149. doi:10.1046/j.1439-0388.2003.00383.x. ISSN 1439-0388.
  18. ^ a b Menges, Eric S. (1990). "Population Viability Analysis for an Endangered Plant". Conservation Biology. 4 (1): 52–62. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.1990.tb00267.x. ISSN 0888-8892.
  19. ^ Population viability analysis. Beissinger, Steven R., McCullough, Dale R., 1933-. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 2002. ISBN 0-226-04177-8. OCLC 48100035.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  20. ^ Boyce, M S (1992-11-01). "Population Viability Analysis". Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. 23 (1): 481–497. doi:10.1146/annurev.es.23.110192.002405. ISSN 0066-4162.
  21. ^ a b Robert C., Lacy (December 26, 2018). "Lessons from 30 years of population viability analysis of wildlife populations". Zoo Biology. 38 (1). doi:10.1002/zoo.21468.
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