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{{use list-defined references|date=July 2013}}
{{use list-defined references|date=July 2013}}
{{Use British English|date=July 2013}}
{{Use British English|date=July 2013}}
[[File:Hong Xiuquan.jpg|thumb|right|[[Hong Xiuquan]], the self-proclaimed younger brother of [[Jesus Christ]] who started the God Worshipping movement]]
[[File:Hong Xiuquan.jpg|thumb|right|[[Hong Xiuquan]], the self-proclaimed younger brother of [[Jesus Christ]] who started the Emperor Worshipping movement.]]
The '''God Worshipping Society''' ({{zh|t=拜上帝會|s=拜上帝会|p=Bài Shàngdì Huì}}) was a religious movement founded and led by [[Hong Xiuquan]] which drew on his own unique interpretation of [[Christianity]] and combined it with [[Chinese folk religion]], faith in [[Shangdi]], and other religious traditions.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Historical Dictionary of Modern China (1800-1949)
The '''God Worshipping Society''' ({{zh|t=拜上帝會|s=拜上帝会|p=Bài Shàngdì Huì}}; its proper translation is '''Emperor Worshipping Society''', [[Shangdi]] means Emperor) was a religious movement founded and led by [[Hong Xiuquan]] which drew on his own unique interpretation of [[Christianity]] and combined it with [[Chinese folk religion]], faith in '''Shangdi''', and other religious traditions.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Historical Dictionary of Modern China (1800-1949)
|last = Gao|first = James Z.|publisher = Scarecrow Press|year = 2009|isbn = 978-0810863088 |page = [https://books.google.com/books?id=wJrLhcgog8oC&printsec=frontcover&dq=isbn:0810863081&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi83Iu2gZbQAhUIRCYKHcnpAR0Q6AEIHTAA#v=onepage&q=god%20worshipping%20society&f=false 136]}}</ref> According to historical evidence, his first contact with Christian [[Tract (literature)|pamphlets]] occurred in 1836 when he directly received [[Americans|American]] [[Congregationalist]] missionary [[Edwin Stevens (missionary)|Edwin Stevens]]' personal copy of the ''[[Good Words to Admonish the Age]]'' (by [[Liang Fa]], 1832). He only briefly looked over and did not carefully examine it. Subsequently, Hong had supposedly experienced mystical visions in the wake of his third failure{{efn|The imperial examinations had a pass rate of less than one percent.<ref>Gray (1990), p. 55</ref>}} of the [[imperial examinations]] in 1837 and after failing for a fourth time in 1843, he sat down to carefully examine the tracts with his distant cousin [[Feng Yunshan]], believing that they were "the key to interpreting his visions" coming to the conclusion that he was "the son of [[God the Father]] and the younger brother of [[Jesus]] [[Christ (title)|Christ]] who had been directed to rid the world of demon worship."<ref>Jen Yu-wen, ''The Taiping Revolutionary Movement'' pp. 15–18 (1973)</ref><ref>Jen Yu-wen, ''The Taiping Revolutionary Movement'' 20 (1973)</ref><ref name=sources>{{Cite book| last1=De Bary| first1= William Theodore |last2=Lufrano |first2=Richard| title=Sources of Chinese Tradition| volume=2| year=2000| publisher=Columbia University Press| isbn=978-0-231-11271-0| pages=213–215}}</ref><ref>Jonathan D. Spence, God's Chinese Son 64 (1996)</ref><ref>Jonathan D. Spence, ''God's Chinese Son'' 65 (1996)</ref>{{sfnp|''BDCC''|2014}}<ref>Jen Yu-wen, The Taiping Revolutionary Movement 19 (1973)</ref>
|last = Gao|first = James Z.|publisher = Scarecrow Press|year = 2009|isbn = 978-0810863088 |page = [https://books.google.com/books?id=wJrLhcgog8oC&printsec=frontcover&dq=isbn:0810863081&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi83Iu2gZbQAhUIRCYKHcnpAR0Q6AEIHTAA#v=onepage&q=god%20worshipping%20society&f=false 136]}}</ref> According to historical evidence, his first contact with Christian [[Tract (literature)|pamphlets]] occurred in 1836 when he directly received [[Americans|American]] [[Congregationalist]] missionary [[Edwin Stevens (missionary)|Edwin Stevens]]' personal copy of the ''[[Good Words to Admonish the Age]]'' (by [[Liang Fa]], 1832). He only briefly looked over and did not carefully examine it. Subsequently, Hong had supposedly experienced mystical visions in the wake of his third failure{{efn|The imperial examinations had a pass rate of less than one percent.<ref>Gray (1990), p. 55</ref>}} of the [[imperial examinations]] in 1837 and after failing for a fourth time in 1843, he sat down to carefully examine the tracts with his distant cousin [[Feng Yunshan]], believing that they were "the key to interpreting his visions" coming to the conclusion that he was "the son of [[God the Father]] and the younger brother of [[Jesus]] [[Christ (title)|Christ]] who had been directed to rid the world of demon worship."<ref>Jen Yu-wen, ''The Taiping Revolutionary Movement'' pp. 15–18 (1973)</ref><ref>Jen Yu-wen, ''The Taiping Revolutionary Movement'' 20 (1973)</ref><ref name=sources>{{Cite book| last1=De Bary| first1= William Theodore |last2=Lufrano |first2=Richard| title=Sources of Chinese Tradition| volume=2| year=2000| publisher=Columbia University Press| isbn=978-0-231-11271-0| pages=213–215}}</ref><ref>Jonathan D. Spence, God's Chinese Son 64 (1996)</ref><ref>Jonathan D. Spence, ''God's Chinese Son'' 65 (1996)</ref>{{sfnp|''BDCC''|2014}}<ref>Jen Yu-wen, The Taiping Revolutionary Movement 19 (1973)</ref>


Line 13: Line 13:
Beginning with [[Robert Morrison (missionary)|Robert Morrison]] in 1807, [[Protestantism in China|Protestant]] [[Protestant missions in China|missionaries]] began working from [[Portuguese Macao|Macao]], [[Pazhou]] (known at the time as "Whampoa"), and [[Guangzhou]] ("Canton"). Their household staff and the printers they employed for [[Morrison's dictionary]] and [[Morrison's Bible|translation of the Bible]]—men like [[Cai Gao]], [[Liang Afa]], and [[Qu Ya'ang]]—were their first converts and suffered greatly, being repeatedly arrested, fined, and driven into exile at [[Dutch Malacca|Malacca]]. However, they corrected and adapted the missionaries' message to reach the Chinese, printing thousands of tracts of their own devising. Unlike the westerners, they were able to travel through the interior of the country and began to particularly frequent the [[prefecture (China)|prefectural]] and [[Guangdong|provincial]] [[imperial examination|examinations]], where local scholars competed for the chance to rise to power in the imperial civil service. One of the native tracts, Liang's nine-part, 500-page tome, ''[[Good Words to Admonish the Age]]'', found its way into the hands of [[Hong Xiuquan]] in the mid-1830s, although it remains a matter of debate during which exact examination this occurred. Hong initially leafed through it without interest.{{Citation needed|date=January 2020}}
Beginning with [[Robert Morrison (missionary)|Robert Morrison]] in 1807, [[Protestantism in China|Protestant]] [[Protestant missions in China|missionaries]] began working from [[Portuguese Macao|Macao]], [[Pazhou]] (known at the time as "Whampoa"), and [[Guangzhou]] ("Canton"). Their household staff and the printers they employed for [[Morrison's dictionary]] and [[Morrison's Bible|translation of the Bible]]—men like [[Cai Gao]], [[Liang Afa]], and [[Qu Ya'ang]]—were their first converts and suffered greatly, being repeatedly arrested, fined, and driven into exile at [[Dutch Malacca|Malacca]]. However, they corrected and adapted the missionaries' message to reach the Chinese, printing thousands of tracts of their own devising. Unlike the westerners, they were able to travel through the interior of the country and began to particularly frequent the [[prefecture (China)|prefectural]] and [[Guangdong|provincial]] [[imperial examination|examinations]], where local scholars competed for the chance to rise to power in the imperial civil service. One of the native tracts, Liang's nine-part, 500-page tome, ''[[Good Words to Admonish the Age]]'', found its way into the hands of [[Hong Xiuquan]] in the mid-1830s, although it remains a matter of debate during which exact examination this occurred. Hong initially leafed through it without interest.{{Citation needed|date=January 2020}}


[[Feng Yunshan]] formed the Society of God Worshippers in [[Guangxi]] after a missionary journey there in 1844 to spread Hong's ideas.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/204254/Feng-Yunshan |title=Feng Yunshan (Chinese rebel leader) |work=Britannica Online Encyclopedia |access-date=2013-03-08}}</ref> In 1847, Hong became the leader of the secret society.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/580815/Taiping-Rebellion |title=Taiping Rebellion (Chinese history) |work=Britannica Online Encyclopedia |access-date=2013-03-08}}</ref> The Taiping faith, inspired by missionary Christianity, says one historian, "developed into a dynamic new Chinese religion&nbsp;... Taiping Christianity". Hong presented this religion as a revival and a restoration of the ancient classical faith in [[Shangdi]], a faith that had been displaced by Confucianism and dynastic imperial regimes.{{sfnb|Reilly|2004 | p = [https://books.google.com/books?id=XbrNq1sBVtMC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=Taiping%20Christianity&f=false 4]}}<ref>Jonathan D. Spence, ''God's Chinese Son'', pp. 25, 64–65, 67 (1996)</ref> The next year, Hong and [[Feng Yunshan]], Hong's distant cousin<ref>Jen Yu-wen, ''The Taiping Revolutionary Movement'', pp. 22–23 (1973)</ref> and one of the earliest converts to Hong's faith,<ref>Jonathan D. Spence, ''God's Chinese Son'', pp. 67, 69, 80 (1996)</ref> traveled to Sigu, [[Guiping]] county, [[Guangxi]] to preach their version of Christianity.<ref>Jonathan D. Spence, ''God's Chinese Son'', p. 71 (1996)</ref> In November 1844, Hong returned home without Feng, who remained in the area and continued to preach.<ref>Jonathan D. Spence, ''God's Chinese Son'', pp. 78–79 (1996)</ref> After Hong's departure, Feng traveled deeper and deeper into the heart of the Thistle Mountain region, preaching and baptizing new converts.<ref>Jonathan D. Spence, ''God's Chinese Son'', pp. 79–80 (1996)</ref> Feng christened this group of believers the "God Worshipping Society".<ref>Jonathan D. Spence, ''God's Chinese Son'', p. 80 (1996)</ref> Hakkas from this area, generally poor and beset by both bandits, and local Chinese families angry at the presence of the Hakka in their ancestral lands, found refuge in the group with its promise of solidarity.<ref>Jonathan D. Spence, ''God's Chinese Son'', pp. 81, 88 (1996)</ref>
[[Feng Yunshan]] formed the Society of Emperor Worshippers in [[Guangxi]] after a missionary journey there in 1844 to spread Hong's ideas.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/204254/Feng-Yunshan |title=Feng Yunshan (Chinese rebel leader) |work=Britannica Online Encyclopedia |access-date=2013-03-08}}</ref> In 1847, Hong became the leader of the secret society.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/580815/Taiping-Rebellion |title=Taiping Rebellion (Chinese history) |work=Britannica Online Encyclopedia |access-date=2013-03-08}}</ref> The Taiping faith, inspired by missionary Christianity, says one historian, "developed into a dynamic new Chinese religion&nbsp;... Taiping Christianity". Hong presented this religion as a revival and a restoration of the ancient classical faith in [[Shangdi]], a faith that had been displaced by Confucianism and dynastic imperial regimes.{{sfnb|Reilly|2004 | p = [https://books.google.com/books?id=XbrNq1sBVtMC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=Taiping%20Christianity&f=false 4]}}<ref>Jonathan D. Spence, ''God's Chinese Son'', pp. 25, 64–65, 67 (1996)</ref> The next year, Hong and [[Feng Yunshan]], Hong's distant cousin<ref>Jen Yu-wen, ''The Taiping Revolutionary Movement'', pp. 22–23 (1973)</ref> and one of the earliest converts to Hong's faith,<ref>Jonathan D. Spence, ''God's Chinese Son'', pp. 67, 69, 80 (1996)</ref> traveled to Sigu, [[Guiping]] county, [[Guangxi]] to preach their version of Christianity.<ref>Jonathan D. Spence, ''God's Chinese Son'', p. 71 (1996)</ref> In November 1844, Hong returned home without Feng, who remained in the area and continued to preach.<ref>Jonathan D. Spence, ''God's Chinese Son'', pp. 78–79 (1996)</ref> After Hong's departure, Feng traveled deeper and deeper into the heart of the Thistle Mountain region, preaching and baptizing new converts.<ref>Jonathan D. Spence, ''God's Chinese Son'', pp. 79–80 (1996)</ref> Feng christened this group of believers the "Emperor Worshipping Society".<ref>Jonathan D. Spence, ''God's Chinese Son'', p. 80 (1996)</ref> Hakkas from this area, generally poor and beset by both bandits, and local Chinese families angry at the presence of the Hakka in their ancestral lands, found refuge in the group with its promise of solidarity.<ref>Jonathan D. Spence, ''God's Chinese Son'', pp. 81, 88 (1996)</ref>


While the God Worshipping Society shared some similar characteristics with traditional Chinese secret societies, it differed in that the participants adopted a new religious faith that firmly rejected Chinese tradition as for the one established by the Manchu regime, since they believed that they were following the Chinese tradition, but the original, the Han tradition.<ref>[[Franz H. Michael]], ''The Taiping Rebellion: History'' p. 29 (1966)</ref> The Society was militant from its inception, due to the prevalence of both intervillage fighting and conflicts between Hakka and non-Hakka villagers.<ref name="auto1">Franz H. Michael, ''The Taiping Rebellion: History'' p. 30 (1966)</ref> Generally, individuals did not convert alone, but rather entire families, clans, occupational groups, or even villages would convert ''[[en masse]]''.<ref name="auto1"/> On 27 August 1847, when Hong Xiuquan returned to the [[Thistle Mountains]], the God Worshipers numbered over 2,000.<ref>Jonathan D. Spence, ''God's Chinese Son'', p. 95 (1996)</ref><ref name="auto">Franz H. Michael, ''The Taiping Rebellion: History'', p. 31 (1966)</ref> At this time, most God Worshippers were peasants and miners.<ref name="auto"/>
While the Emperor Worshipping Society shared some similar characteristics with traditional Chinese secret societies, it differed in that the participants adopted a new religious faith that firmly rejected Chinese tradition as for the one established by the Manchu regime, since they believed that they were following the Chinese tradition, but the original, the Han tradition.<ref>[[Franz H. Michael]], ''The Taiping Rebellion: History'' p. 29 (1966)</ref> The Society was militant from its inception, due to the prevalence of both intervillage fighting and conflicts between Hakka and non-Hakka villagers.<ref name="auto1">Franz H. Michael, ''The Taiping Rebellion: History'' p. 30 (1966)</ref> Generally, individuals did not convert alone, but rather entire families, clans, occupational groups, or even villages would convert ''[[en masse]]''.<ref name="auto1"/> On 27 August 1847, when Hong Xiuquan returned to the [[Thistle Mountains]], the Emperor Worshipers numbered over 2,000.<ref>Jonathan D. Spence, ''God's Chinese Son'', p. 95 (1996)</ref><ref name="auto">Franz H. Michael, ''The Taiping Rebellion: History'', p. 31 (1966)</ref> At this time, most Emperor Worshippers were peasants and miners.<ref name="auto"/>


==Growth==
==Growth==
With Hong's return, the God Worshipping Society took on a more rebellious character.<ref name="auto"/> Hong began to describe himself as a king and explicitly identified the ruling Manchus and their supporters as demons which must be destroyed.<ref>Franz H. Michael, ''The Taiping Rebellion: History'', pp. 31–32 (1966)</ref> The God Worshippers treated their entire community as a family, leading to establishment of a common treasury and a requirement of chastity.<ref>Franz H. Michael, ''The Taiping Rebellion: History'", p. 33 (1966)</ref>
With Hong's return, the Emperor Worshipping Society took on a more rebellious character.<ref name="auto"/> Hong began to describe himself as a king and explicitly identified the ruling Manchus and their supporters as demons which must be destroyed.<ref>Franz H. Michael, ''The Taiping Rebellion: History'', pp. 31–32 (1966)</ref> The Emperor Worshippers treated their entire community as a family, leading to establishment of a common treasury and a requirement of chastity.<ref>Franz H. Michael, ''The Taiping Rebellion: History'", p. 33 (1966)</ref>


In January 1848, Feng Yunshan was arrested and banished to [[Guangdong]].<ref>Franz H. Michael, ''The Taiping Rebellion: History'', p. 34–35 (1966)</ref> Hong Xiuquan left for Guangdong shortly thereafter to reunite with Feng.<ref>Franz H. Michael, ''The Taiping Rebellion: History'' 35–37 (1966)</ref> In the absence of both Feng and Hong, two new leaders emerged to fill the void: [[Yang Xiuqing]] and [[Xiao Chaogui]].<ref name="auto2">Franz H. Michael, ''The Taiping Rebellion: History'' p. 35 (1966)</ref> Both claimed to enter trances which allowed them to speak as a member of the [[Trinity]]: God the Father in the case of Yang and Jesus Christ in the case of Xiao.<ref name="auto2"/> While speaking as Jesus or God the Father, Xiao and Yang would necessarily have more authority than even Hong Xiuquan.<ref>Franz H. Michael, ''The Taiping Rebellion: History'', p. 36 (1966)</ref> Upon their return in the summer of 1849, Hong and Feng investigated Yang and Xiao's claims and declared them to be genuine.<ref name="auto3">Franz H. Michael, ''The Taiping Rebellion: History'', p. 37 (1966)</ref>
In January 1848, Feng Yunshan was arrested and banished to [[Guangdong]].<ref>Franz H. Michael, ''The Taiping Rebellion: History'', p. 34–35 (1966)</ref> Hong Xiuquan left for Guangdong shortly thereafter to reunite with Feng.<ref>Franz H. Michael, ''The Taiping Rebellion: History'' 35–37 (1966)</ref> In the absence of both Feng and Hong, two new leaders emerged to fill the void: [[Yang Xiuqing]] and [[Xiao Chaogui]].<ref name="auto2">Franz H. Michael, ''The Taiping Rebellion: History'' p. 35 (1966)</ref> Both claimed to enter trances which allowed them to speak as a member of the [[Trinity]]: God the Father/Shangdi in the case of Yang and Jesus Christ in the case of Xiao.<ref name="auto2"/> While speaking as Jesus or God the Father, Xiao and Yang would necessarily have more authority than even Hong Xiuquan.<ref>Franz H. Michael, ''The Taiping Rebellion: History'', p. 36 (1966)</ref> Upon their return in the summer of 1849, Hong and Feng investigated Yang and Xiao's claims and declared them to be genuine.<ref name="auto3">Franz H. Michael, ''The Taiping Rebellion: History'', p. 37 (1966)</ref>


==Jintian Uprising==
==Jintian Uprising==
{{Main|Jintian Uprising}}
{{Main|Jintian Uprising}}
In February 1850, local corps passed through a number of God Worshipping villages and threatened to kill the converts.<ref name="auto3"/> In response, Feng Yunshan began to call for open revolt by the God Worshippers.<ref name="auto3"/> In July 1850, the God Worshipper's leaders directed their followers to converge in [[Jintian, Guangxi|Jintian]] and quickly amassed a force of 10,000–30,000 people.<ref>Franz H. Michael, ''The Taiping Rebellion: History'', p. 39 (1966)</ref> While the majority of the group were Hakka, some followers were [[Punti]], [[Miao people|Miao]], or members of other local tribal groups.<ref>[[Franz H. Michael]], ''The Taiping Rebellion: History'', p. 40–41 (1966)</ref> Membership in the God Worshippers was eclectic; they counted businessmen, refugees, farmers, mercenaries, and members of secret societies and mutual-protection alliances among their ranks.<ref>Pamela Kyle Crossley, ''The Wobbling Pivot: China Since 1800'', p. 104 (2010)</ref> The God Worshippers were also joined by a number of bandit groups, including several thousand pirates led by Luo Dagang.<ref>Franz H. Michael, ''The Taiping Rebellion: History'', p. 40 (1966)</ref>
In February 1850, local corps passed through a number of Emperor Worshipping villages and threatened to kill the converts.<ref name="auto3"/> In response, Feng Yunshan began to call for open revolt by the Emperor Worshippers.<ref name="auto3"/> In July 1850, the Emperor Worshipper's leaders directed their followers to converge in [[Jintian, Guangxi|Jintian]] and quickly amassed a force of 10,000–30,000 people.<ref>Franz H. Michael, ''The Taiping Rebellion: History'', p. 39 (1966)</ref> While the majority of the group were Hakka, some followers were [[Punti]], [[Miao people|Miao]], or members of other local tribal groups.<ref>[[Franz H. Michael]], ''The Taiping Rebellion: History'', p. 40–41 (1966)</ref> Membership in the Emperor Worshippers was eclectic; they counted businessmen, refugees, farmers, mercenaries, and members of secret societies and mutual-protection alliances among their ranks.<ref>Pamela Kyle Crossley, ''The Wobbling Pivot: China Since 1800'', p. 104 (2010)</ref> The Emperor Worshippers were also joined by a number of bandit groups, including several thousand pirates led by Luo Dagang.<ref>Franz H. Michael, ''The Taiping Rebellion: History'', p. 40 (1966)</ref>


==The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom==
==The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom==
{{Main|Taiping Rebellion|Taiping Heavenly Kingdom}}
{{Main|Taiping Rebellion|Taiping Heavenly Kingdom}}
On the 11th day of the first lunar month of 1851, which was also Hong Xiuquan's birthday, the God Worshipping Society proclaimed the [[Jintian Uprising]] against the ruling [[Qing dynasty]], and declared the formation of the [[Taiping Heavenly Kingdom]], thus beginning the [[Taiping Rebellion]], which has been described as the "most gigantic man-made disaster" of the nineteenth century.{{sfnb|Kuhn | 1977| p = }}
On the 11th day of the first lunar month of 1851, which was also Hong Xiuquan's birthday, the Emperor Worshipping Society proclaimed the [[Jintian Uprising]] against the ruling [[Qing dynasty]], and declared the formation of the [[Taiping Heavenly Kingdom]], thus beginning the [[Taiping Rebellion]], which has been described as the "most gigantic man-made disaster" of the nineteenth century.{{sfnb|Kuhn | 1977| p = }}


==See also==
==See also==

Revision as of 11:15, 29 November 2021

Hong Xiuquan, the self-proclaimed younger brother of Jesus Christ who started the Emperor Worshipping movement.

The God Worshipping Society (simplified Chinese: 拜上帝会; traditional Chinese: 拜上帝會; pinyin: Bài Shàngdì Huì; its proper translation is Emperor Worshipping Society, Shangdi means Emperor) was a religious movement founded and led by Hong Xiuquan which drew on his own unique interpretation of Christianity and combined it with Chinese folk religion, faith in Shangdi, and other religious traditions.[1] According to historical evidence, his first contact with Christian pamphlets occurred in 1836 when he directly received American Congregationalist missionary Edwin Stevens' personal copy of the Good Words to Admonish the Age (by Liang Fa, 1832). He only briefly looked over and did not carefully examine it. Subsequently, Hong had supposedly experienced mystical visions in the wake of his third failure[a] of the imperial examinations in 1837 and after failing for a fourth time in 1843, he sat down to carefully examine the tracts with his distant cousin Feng Yunshan, believing that they were "the key to interpreting his visions" coming to the conclusion that he was "the son of God the Father and the younger brother of Jesus Christ who had been directed to rid the world of demon worship."[3][4][5][6][7][8][9]

Beliefs

Like most Christians,[10][11] the God-Worshipping Society believed in Divine filiation, the scriptural concept that all Christian believers become sons and daughters of God when redeemed by Christ.[12] Hong did not claim to have a supernatural birth;[13] Hong Xiuquan was merely regarded as the second eldest son of God after Jesus Christ, with Feng Yunshan as third eldest son, and Yang Xiuqing the fourth eldest.[14]

Formation

Beginning with Robert Morrison in 1807, Protestant missionaries began working from Macao, Pazhou (known at the time as "Whampoa"), and Guangzhou ("Canton"). Their household staff and the printers they employed for Morrison's dictionary and translation of the Bible—men like Cai Gao, Liang Afa, and Qu Ya'ang—were their first converts and suffered greatly, being repeatedly arrested, fined, and driven into exile at Malacca. However, they corrected and adapted the missionaries' message to reach the Chinese, printing thousands of tracts of their own devising. Unlike the westerners, they were able to travel through the interior of the country and began to particularly frequent the prefectural and provincial examinations, where local scholars competed for the chance to rise to power in the imperial civil service. One of the native tracts, Liang's nine-part, 500-page tome, Good Words to Admonish the Age, found its way into the hands of Hong Xiuquan in the mid-1830s, although it remains a matter of debate during which exact examination this occurred. Hong initially leafed through it without interest.[citation needed]

Feng Yunshan formed the Society of Emperor Worshippers in Guangxi after a missionary journey there in 1844 to spread Hong's ideas.[15] In 1847, Hong became the leader of the secret society.[16] The Taiping faith, inspired by missionary Christianity, says one historian, "developed into a dynamic new Chinese religion ... Taiping Christianity". Hong presented this religion as a revival and a restoration of the ancient classical faith in Shangdi, a faith that had been displaced by Confucianism and dynastic imperial regimes.[17][18] The next year, Hong and Feng Yunshan, Hong's distant cousin[19] and one of the earliest converts to Hong's faith,[20] traveled to Sigu, Guiping county, Guangxi to preach their version of Christianity.[21] In November 1844, Hong returned home without Feng, who remained in the area and continued to preach.[22] After Hong's departure, Feng traveled deeper and deeper into the heart of the Thistle Mountain region, preaching and baptizing new converts.[23] Feng christened this group of believers the "Emperor Worshipping Society".[24] Hakkas from this area, generally poor and beset by both bandits, and local Chinese families angry at the presence of the Hakka in their ancestral lands, found refuge in the group with its promise of solidarity.[25]

While the Emperor Worshipping Society shared some similar characteristics with traditional Chinese secret societies, it differed in that the participants adopted a new religious faith that firmly rejected Chinese tradition as for the one established by the Manchu regime, since they believed that they were following the Chinese tradition, but the original, the Han tradition.[26] The Society was militant from its inception, due to the prevalence of both intervillage fighting and conflicts between Hakka and non-Hakka villagers.[27] Generally, individuals did not convert alone, but rather entire families, clans, occupational groups, or even villages would convert en masse.[27] On 27 August 1847, when Hong Xiuquan returned to the Thistle Mountains, the Emperor Worshipers numbered over 2,000.[28][29] At this time, most Emperor Worshippers were peasants and miners.[29]

Growth

With Hong's return, the Emperor Worshipping Society took on a more rebellious character.[29] Hong began to describe himself as a king and explicitly identified the ruling Manchus and their supporters as demons which must be destroyed.[30] The Emperor Worshippers treated their entire community as a family, leading to establishment of a common treasury and a requirement of chastity.[31]

In January 1848, Feng Yunshan was arrested and banished to Guangdong.[32] Hong Xiuquan left for Guangdong shortly thereafter to reunite with Feng.[33] In the absence of both Feng and Hong, two new leaders emerged to fill the void: Yang Xiuqing and Xiao Chaogui.[34] Both claimed to enter trances which allowed them to speak as a member of the Trinity: God the Father/Shangdi in the case of Yang and Jesus Christ in the case of Xiao.[34] While speaking as Jesus or God the Father, Xiao and Yang would necessarily have more authority than even Hong Xiuquan.[35] Upon their return in the summer of 1849, Hong and Feng investigated Yang and Xiao's claims and declared them to be genuine.[36]

Jintian Uprising

Main article: Jintian Uprising

In February 1850, local corps passed through a number of Emperor Worshipping villages and threatened to kill the converts.[36] In response, Feng Yunshan began to call for open revolt by the Emperor Worshippers.[36] In July 1850, the Emperor Worshipper's leaders directed their followers to converge in Jintian and quickly amassed a force of 10,000–30,000 people.[37] While the majority of the group were Hakka, some followers were Punti, Miao, or members of other local tribal groups.[38] Membership in the Emperor Worshippers was eclectic; they counted businessmen, refugees, farmers, mercenaries, and members of secret societies and mutual-protection alliances among their ranks.[39] The Emperor Worshippers were also joined by a number of bandit groups, including several thousand pirates led by Luo Dagang.[40]

The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom

Main articles: Taiping Rebellion and Taiping Heavenly Kingdom

On the 11th day of the first lunar month of 1851, which was also Hong Xiuquan's birthday, the Emperor Worshipping Society proclaimed the Jintian Uprising against the ruling Qing dynasty, and declared the formation of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, thus beginning the Taiping Rebellion, which has been described as the "most gigantic man-made disaster" of the nineteenth century.[41]

See also

Footnotes

  1. ^ The imperial examinations had a pass rate of less than one percent.[2]

Notes

  1. ^ Gao, James Z. (2009). Historical Dictionary of Modern China (1800-1949). Scarecrow Press. p. 136. ISBN 978-0810863088.
  2. ^ Gray (1990), p. 55
  3. ^ Jen Yu-wen, The Taiping Revolutionary Movement pp. 15–18 (1973)
  4. ^ Jen Yu-wen, The Taiping Revolutionary Movement 20 (1973)
  5. ^ De Bary, William Theodore; Lufrano, Richard (2000). Sources of Chinese Tradition. Vol. 2. Columbia University Press. pp. 213–215. ISBN 978-0-231-11271-0.
  6. ^ Jonathan D. Spence, God's Chinese Son 64 (1996)
  7. ^ Jonathan D. Spence, God's Chinese Son 65 (1996)
  8. ^ BDCC (2014).
  9. ^ Jen Yu-wen, The Taiping Revolutionary Movement 19 (1973)
  10. ^ Westminster Confession, http://www.reformed.org/documents/wcf_with_proofs/index.html?body=/documents/wcf_with_proofs/ch_XII.html
  11. ^ Book of Concord, http://bookofconcord.org/sd-righteousness.php paragraphs 4, 9, 10, and 25
  12. ^ Jonathan D. Spence, God's Chinese Son Chapter 9 (1996)
  13. ^ Jonathan D. Spence, God's Chinese Son Chapter 19 (1996)
  14. ^ Jonathan D. Spence, God's Chinese Son Chapter 15 (1996)
  15. ^ "Feng Yunshan (Chinese rebel leader)". Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Retrieved 8 March 2013.
  16. ^ "Taiping Rebellion (Chinese history)". Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Retrieved 8 March 2013.
  17. ^ Reilly (2004), p. 4.
  18. ^ Jonathan D. Spence, God's Chinese Son, pp. 25, 64–65, 67 (1996)
  19. ^ Jen Yu-wen, The Taiping Revolutionary Movement, pp. 22–23 (1973)
  20. ^ Jonathan D. Spence, God's Chinese Son, pp. 67, 69, 80 (1996)
  21. ^ Jonathan D. Spence, God's Chinese Son, p. 71 (1996)
  22. ^ Jonathan D. Spence, God's Chinese Son, pp. 78–79 (1996)
  23. ^ Jonathan D. Spence, God's Chinese Son, pp. 79–80 (1996)
  24. ^ Jonathan D. Spence, God's Chinese Son, p. 80 (1996)
  25. ^ Jonathan D. Spence, God's Chinese Son, pp. 81, 88 (1996)
  26. ^ Franz H. Michael, The Taiping Rebellion: History p. 29 (1966)
  27. ^ a b Franz H. Michael, The Taiping Rebellion: History p. 30 (1966)
  28. ^ Jonathan D. Spence, God's Chinese Son, p. 95 (1996)
  29. ^ a b c Franz H. Michael, The Taiping Rebellion: History, p. 31 (1966)
  30. ^ Franz H. Michael, The Taiping Rebellion: History, pp. 31–32 (1966)
  31. ^ Franz H. Michael, The Taiping Rebellion: History'", p. 33 (1966)
  32. ^ Franz H. Michael, The Taiping Rebellion: History, p. 34–35 (1966)
  33. ^ Franz H. Michael, The Taiping Rebellion: History 35–37 (1966)
  34. ^ a b Franz H. Michael, The Taiping Rebellion: History p. 35 (1966)
  35. ^ Franz H. Michael, The Taiping Rebellion: History, p. 36 (1966)
  36. ^ a b c Franz H. Michael, The Taiping Rebellion: History, p. 37 (1966)
  37. ^ Franz H. Michael, The Taiping Rebellion: History, p. 39 (1966)
  38. ^ Franz H. Michael, The Taiping Rebellion: History, p. 40–41 (1966)
  39. ^ Pamela Kyle Crossley, The Wobbling Pivot: China Since 1800, p. 104 (2010)
  40. ^ Franz H. Michael, The Taiping Rebellion: History, p. 40 (1966)
  41. ^ Kuhn (1977).

Sources

Works cited
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