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{{otheruses4|the Christian scriptures|the use of the term in reference to the theological concept of the New Covenant (sometimes translated "New Testament")|New Covenant}}
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JESUS DIES
The '''New Testament''' ([[Koine Greek|Greek]]: Καινή Διαθήκη, ''Kainē Diathēkē'') is the name given to the second half of the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Bible]], written after the [[Hebrew Bible]] (also called by Jews [[Tanakh]]), known to Christians as the [[Old Testament]]. It is sometimes called the '''Greek Testament''' or '''Greek Scriptures''', or the [[New Covenant]] – which is the literal [[translation]] of the original [[Greek language|Greek]]. The original texts were written in [[Koine Greek]] by various authors after c. AD 45 and before c. AD 140. Its 27 books were gradually collected into a single volume over a period of several centuries. The New Testament is a central element of [[Christianity]], and has played a major role in shaping modern Western culture. Although certain Christian sects differ as to which works are included in the New Testament, the vast majority of denominations have settled on the same twenty-seven book [[Biblical canon|canon]]: it consists of the four narratives of [[Jesus|Jesus Christ's]] ministry, called "[[Gospel]]s"; a narrative of the [[Twelve Apostles|Apostles]]' ministries in the [[Early Christianity|early church]], which is also a sequel to the third Gospel; twenty-one early letters, commonly called "[[epistles]]" in Biblical context, written by various authors and consisted mostly of Christian counsel and instruction; and an [[Apocalypse|Apocalyptic]] [[prophecy]], which is technically the twenty-second epistle. Although the traditional timeline of composition may have been taken into account by the shapers of the current New Testament format, it is not, nor was it meant to be, in strictly chronological order. Though Jesus spoke [[Aramaic]], the New Testament (including the Gospels) was written in Greek because that was the [[lingua franca]] of the Roman Empire.
{{Books of the New Testament}}
===Gospels===
Each of the Gospels narrates the ministry of [[Jesus]] of [[Nazareth]]. The traditional author is listed after each entry. Modern scholarship differs on precisely by whom, when, or in what original form the various gospels were written.
*The [[Gospel of Matthew]], traditionally ascribed to the Apostle [[Matthew the Evangelist|Matthew, son of Alphaeus]].
*The [[Gospel of Mark]], traditionally ascribed to [[Mark the Evangelist]], who wrote down the recollections of the Apostle [[Saint Peter|Simon Peter]].
*The [[Gospel of Luke]], traditionally ascribed to [[Luke the Evangelist|Luke]], a physician and companion of [[Paul of Tarsus]].
*The [[Gospel of John]], traditionally ascribed to the Apostle [[John the Apostle|John, son of Zebedee]]

The first three are commonly classified as the [[Synoptic Gospels]]. They contain very similar accounts of events in Jesus' life. The Gospel of John stands apart for its unique records of several miracles and sayings of Jesus, not found elsewhere.

{{See also|synoptic problem}}

===Acts===
The book of [[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]], also termed Acts of the [[Apostles]] or Acts of the [[Holy Spirit]], is a narrative of the Apostles' ministry after Christ's death and subsequent resurrection, which is also a sequel to the third Gospel. Examining style, phraseology, and other evidence, modern scholarship generally concludes that Acts and Luke share the same author.
*Acts, traditionally [[Luke the Evangelist|Luke]].

===Pauline epistles===
The [[Pauline epistles]] (or ''Corpus Paulinum'') constitute those [[epistle]]s traditionally attributed to [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]. However the authorship of a number of the other epistles is sometimes disputed ''(see section on authorship below, and [[Authorship of the Pauline epistles]])''.

*[[Epistle to the Romans]]
*[[First Epistle to the Corinthians]]
*[[Second Epistle to the Corinthians]]
*[[Epistle to the Galatians]]
*[[Epistle to the Ephesians]]
*[[Epistle to the Philippians]]
*[[Epistle to the Colossians]]
*[[First Epistle to the Thessalonians]]
*[[Second Epistle to the Thessalonians]]
*[[First Epistle to Timothy]]
*[[Second Epistle to Timothy]]
*[[Epistle to Titus]]
*[[Epistle to Philemon]]
{{Christianity}}

===General or Catholic epistles===
:''See main article: [[General epistles]]''
Includes those Epistles written to the church at large (''Catholic'' in this sense simply means ''universal'').
*[[Epistle to the Hebrews]], anonymous and unknown authorship
*[[Epistle of James]], traditionally by [[James the Just|James, brother of Jesus and Jude Thomas]].
*[[First Epistle of Peter]], traditionally ascribed to the Apostle [[Saint Peter|Simon, called Peter]].
*[[Second Epistle of Peter]], traditionally ascribed to the Apostle [[Saint Peter|Simon, called Peter]].
*[[First Epistle of John]], traditionally ascribed to the Apostle [[John the Apostle|John, son of Zebedee]].
*[[Second Epistle of John]], traditionally ascribed to the Apostle [[John the Apostle|John, son of Zebedee]].
*[[Third Epistle of John]], traditionally ascribed to the Apostle [[John the Apostle|John, son of Zebedee]].
*[[Epistle of Jude]], traditionally ascribed to [[Jude, brother of Jesus|Jude Thomas, brother of Jesus and James]].

===Revelation===
The final book of the New Testament is the [[Book of Revelation]]. The authorship is attributed either to the Apostle [[John the Apostle|John, son of Zebedee]] or to [[John of Patmos]]. For a discussion of authorship see [[Authorship of the Johannine works]].

Revelation is sometimes called The Apocalypse of John. It is also not read or used during church services by the [[Orthodox church]].

See also: [[Apocalyptic literature]], [[Bible prophecy]]

=== Order ===
The New Testament books are ordered differently in different Church Traditions. For example the Protestant order follows the Roman Catholic order. Outside the Catholic/Protestant world there are different orders in the Slavonic, Syriac and Ethiopian Bibles.

===Apocrypha===
{{main|New Testament apocrypha}}

In ancient times there were dozens of Christian writings claiming Apostolic authorship, or for some other reason considered to have authority by some ancient churches, but which were not ultimately included in the 27-book New Testament canon. These works are considered "apocryphal", and are therefore referred to as the New Testament [[Apocrypha]]. It includes not only writing favourable to the position of the orthodoxy, but also a large amount of [[Gnostic]] writing, and non-[[canon]]ical books. These apocryphal works are nevertheless important insofar as they provide an ancient context and setting for the composition of the canonical books. They also can help establish linguistic conventions common in the canonical texts. Examples of early apocryphal works are the [[Gospel of Thomas]], the
[[Epistle of Barnabas]] and the [[Epistle to the Laodiceans]].

==Language==
{{BibleRelated}}
The common languages spoken by both Jews and Gentiles in the holy land at the time of Jesus were [[Aramaic of Jesus|Aramaic]], [[Koine Greek]], and to a limited extent a colloquial dialect of [[Mishnaic Hebrew]]. However, the original text of the New Testament was most likely written in Koine Greek, the vernacular dialect in 1st century [[Roman province]]s of the [[Mediterranean|Eastern Mediterranean]], and has since been widely translated into other languages, most notably, [[Latin]], [[Syriac language|Syriac]], and [[Coptic language|Coptic]]. However, some of the Church Fathers seem to imply that Matthew was originally written in [[Hebrew (language)|Hebrew]] or Aramaic, and there is another contention that the author of the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]] wrote in Hebrew, which was translated into Greek by [[Luke the Evangelist|Luke]]. Neither view holds much support among contemporary scholars, who argue that the literary facets of Matthew and Hebrews suggest that they were composed directly in Greek, rather than being translated.

A very small minority of scholars consider the Aramaic version of the New Testament to be the original and believe the Greek is a translation (see [[Aramaic primacy]]).

==Etymology==
Some believe the English term ''New Testament'' ultimately comes from the Hebrew language. ''New Testament'' is taken from the Latin ''Novum Testamentum'' first coined by [[Tertullian]]. Some believe this in turn is a translation of the earlier [[Koine Greek]] ''Καινή Διαθήκη'' (pronounced in postclassical Greek as ''Keni Dhiathiki''). This Greek term is found in the original Greek language of the New Testament, though commonly translated as [[New Covenant (theology)|new covenant]], and found even earlier in the Greek translation of the [[Old Testament]] that is called the [[Septuagint]]. At [[Jeremiah]] 31:31, the Septuagint translated this term into Greek from the original [[Biblical Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''ברית חדשה'' (brit chadashah). The Hebrew term is usually also translated into English as ''new covenant''.

As a result, some claim the term was first used by [[Early Christians]] to refer to the ''new covenant'' that was the basis for their relationship with [[God]]. About two centuries later at the time of [[Tertullian]] and [[Lactantius]], the phrase was being used to designate a particular collection of books that some believed embodied this ''new covenant''.

[[Tertullian]], in the 2nd century, is the first currently known to use the terms ''novum testamentum/new testament'' and ''vetus testamentum/old testament''. For example, in ''Against [[Marcion]]'' book 3 [http://earlychristianwritings.com/text/tertullian123.html], chapter 14, he wrote:
<blockquote>
This may be understood to be the Divine Word, who is doubly edged with the two testaments of the [[Mosaic Law|law]] and the [[gospel]]
</blockquote>
And in book 4 [http://earlychristianwritings.com/text/tertullian124.html], chapter 6, he wrote:
<blockquote>
For it is certain that the whole aim at which he has strenuously laboured even in the drawing up of his [[Antitheses]], centres in this, that he may establish a diversity between the Old and the New Testaments, so that his own [[Christ]] may be separate from the [[Creator God|Creator]], as belonging to this rival god, and as alien from the law and the [[Neviim|prophets]].
</blockquote>
[[Lactantius]], also in Latin, in the 3rd century, in his ''Divine Institutes'', book 4, chapter 20 [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-07/anf07-07.htm#P1533_624437], wrote:
<blockquote>
But all Scripture is divided into two Testaments. That which preceded the advent and passion of Christ—that is, the [[Mosaic Law|law]] and the [[Neviim|prophets]]—is called the Old; but those things which were written after His resurrection are named the New Testament. The Jews make use of the Old, we of the New: but yet they are not discordant, for the New is the fulfilling of the Old, and in both there is the same testator, even Christ, who, having suffered death for us, made us heirs of His everlasting kingdom, the people of the Jews being deprived and disinherited. As the prophet Jeremiah testifies when he speaks such things: [Jer 31:31–32] "Behold, the days come, saith the Lord, that I will make a new testament to the house of Israel and the house of Judah, not according to the testament which I made to their fathers, in the day that I took them by the hand to bring them out of the land of Egypt; for they continued not in my testament, and I disregarded them, saith the Lord." ... For that which He said above, that He would make a new testament to the house of Judah, shows that the old testament which was given by Moses was not perfect; but that which was to be given by Christ would be complete.
</blockquote>
The [[Vulgate]] translation, in the 5th century, used ''testamentum'' in 2nd Corinthians 3 [http://www.latinvulgate.com/verse.aspx?t=1&b=8&c=3]:
<blockquote>
(6) Who also hath made us fit ministers of the new testament, not in the letter but in the spirit. For the letter killeth: but the spirit quickeneth. ([[Douay-Rheims]])
<br />
(14) But their senses were made dull. For, until this present day, the selfsame veil, in the reading of the old testament, remaineth not taken away (because in Christ it is made void). ([[Douay-Rheims]])
</blockquote>
However, the more modern [[NRSV]] translates these verses from the [[Koine Greek]] as such:
<blockquote>
(6) Who has made us competent to be ministers of a new covenant, not of letter but of spirit; for the letter kills, but the Spirit gives life.
<br />
(14) But their minds were hardened. Indeed, to this very day, when they hear the reading of the old covenant, that same veil is still there, since only in Christ is it set aside.
</blockquote>
Thus, it is common to translate using either of two English terms, [[Will (law)|testament]] and [[covenant]], even though they are not synonymous.

{{Template:New Testament people}}

==Authorship==
{{main|Authorship of the Pauline epistles|Authorship of the Johannine works}}
The New Testament is a collection of works, and as such was written by multiple authors. The traditional view--that is, the authors according to most early orthodox Christians--is that all the books were written by [[Twelve apostles|Apostles]] (e.g. Matthew and Paul) or disciples working under their direction (e.g. [[Mark the Evangelist|Mark]]<ref>[[Papias]] (c. 130) gives the perhaps earliest tradition of Mark's Apostolic connection: "This also the [[presbyter]] said: Mark, having become the interpreter of Peter, wrote down accurately, though not in order, whatsoever he remembered of the things said or done by Christ. For he neither heard the Lord nor followed him, but afterward, as I said, he followed Peter, who adapted his teaching to the needs of his hearers, but with no intention of giving a connected account of the Lord's discourses, so that Mark committed no error while he thus wrote some things as he remembered them. For he was careful of one thing, not to omit any of the thing which he had heard, and not to state any of them falsely" (cited by [[Eusebius of Caesarea]], ''[[Church History (Eusebius)|Church History]]'', 3.39.21ff.).</ref> and [[Luke the Evangelist|Luke]]<ref>Irenaeus wrote about AD 180, "Luke, the attendant of Paul, recorded in a book the Gospel which Paul had declared" (cited by Eusebius, ''Hist. eccl.'', 5.8.3ff.).</ref>). However, in modern times, with the rise of rigorous historical inquiry and textual criticism, these traditional ascriptions have been rejected by some. While the traditional authors have been listed [[New Testament#Books of the New Testament|above]], the modern critical view is discussed herein.

Seven of the epistles of Paul are generally accepted by most modern scholars as authentic; these undisputed letters include Romans, First Corinthians, Second Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, First Thessalonians, and Philemon. [[Raymond E. Brown]] has this to say about Colossians: "At the present moment about 60 percent of critical scholarship holds that Paul did not write the letter" (An Introduction, p. 610; cited by earlychristianwritings.com). Liberal scholars usually question Pauline authorship for any other epistle, although there are conservative Christian scholars who accept the traditional ascriptions. Almost no current mainstream scholars, however, Christian or otherwise, hold that Paul wrote Hebrews. In fact, questions about the authorship of Hebrews go back at least to the 3rd century ecclesiastical writer Caius, who attributed only thirteen epistles to Paul (Eusebius, ''Hist. eccl.'', 6.20.3ff.). A small minority of scholars hypothesize Hebrews may have been written by one of Paul's close associates, such as [[Barnabas]], [[Silas]], or [[Luke the Evangelist|Luke]], given that the themes therein seemed to them as largely [[Pauline Christianity|Pauline]].

The authorship of all non-Pauline books have been disputed in recent times. Ascriptions are largely polarized between Christian and non-Christian experts, making any sort of scholarly consensus all but impossible. Even majority views are unclear.

The Synoptic Gospels, Matthew, Mark and Luke, unlike the other New Testament works, have a unique documentary relationship. The dominant view among non-theologian scholars, the [[Two-Source Hypothesis]], is that both Matthew and Luke drew significantly upon the Gospel of Mark and another common source, known as the [[Q document|"Q Source"]], from ''Quelle'', the German word for "source". However, the nature and even existence of Q is purely theoretical and speculative, and thus scholars have proposed variants on the hypothesis which redefine or exclude it. Most pro-Q scholars believe that it was a single written document, while a few contest that "Q" was actually a number of documents or oral traditions. If it was a documentary source, no information about its author or authors can be obtained from the resources currently available. The traditional view supposes that Matthew was written first, and Mark and Luke drew from it and the second chronological work; and some scholars have attempted to use their modern methods to confirm the idea. An even smaller group of scholars espouse Lukan priority.

Modern scholars are skeptical about authorship claims for noncanonical books, such as the [[Nag Hammadi library|Nag Hammadi corpus]] discovered in Egypt in 1945. This corpus of fifty-two Coptic books, dated to about 350–400, includes gospels in the names of [[Gospel of Thomas|Thomas]], [[Gospel of Philip|Philip]], [[Gospel of James|James]], John, and many others. Like almost all ancient works, they represent copies rather than original texts. None of the original texts has been discovered, and scholars argue about the dating of the originals. Suggested dates vary from as early as 50 to as late as the late second century for the gnostics. (See [[Gospel of Thomas]] and [[New Testament Apocrypha]].)

To summarize, the only books for which there are solid authorship consensuses among modern critical scholars are the Pauline epistiles mentioned above, which are universally regarded as authentic, and Hebrews, which is nearly always rejected. The remaining nineteen books remain in dispute, some holding to the traditional view, and others regarding them as anonymous or pseudonymic.

==Date of composition==
According to tradition, the earliest of the books were the letters of Paul, and the last books to be written are those attributed to John, who is traditionally said to have lived to a very old age, perhaps dying as late as 100, although this is often disputed. [[Irenaeus of Lyons]], c. 185, stated that the Gospels of Matthew and Mark were written while Peter and Paul were preaching in Rome, which would be in the 60s, and Luke was written some time later.

Most secular scholars agree on the dating of the majority of the New Testament, except for the epistles and books that they consider to be [[pseudepigraphy|pseudepigraphical]] (i.e., those thought not to be written by their traditional authors). For the Gospels they tend to date Mark no earlier than 65 and no later than 75. Matthew is dated between 70 and 85. Luke is usually placed within 80 to 95. The earliest of the books of the New Testament was [[First Thessalonians]], an epistle of [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]], written probably in 51, or possibly [[Epistle to the Galatians|Galatians]] in 49 according to one of two theories of its writing. Of the pseudepigraphical epistles, Christian scholars tend to place them somewhere between 70 and 150, with [[Second Peter]] usually being the latest.

In the 1830s German scholars of the [[Tübingen]] school dated the books as late as the third century, but the discovery of some [[Biblical manuscript|New Testament manuscripts]] and fragments, not including some of the later writings, dating as far back as 125 (notably [[Papyrus 52]]) has called such late dating into question. Additionally, a letter to the church at [[Corinth]] in the name of [[Clement I|Clement of Rome]] in 95 quotes from 10 of the 27 books of the New Testament, and a [[Polycarp's letter to the Philippians|letter to the church at Philippi in the name of Polycarp]] in 120 quotes from 16 books. Therefore, some of the books of the New Testament were at least in a first-draft stage, though there is negligible evidence in these quotes or among biblical manuscripts for the existence of different early drafts. Other books were probably not completed until later, if we assume they must have been quoted by Clement<!---Pope Clement I or Clement of Alexandria---> or [[Polycarp]]. There are many minor discrepancies between manuscripts (largely spelling or grammatical differences).

==Canonization==
{{main|Development of the New Testament canon}}

The process of canonization was complex and lengthy. It was characterized by a compilation of books that Christians found inspiring in worship and teaching, relevant to the historical situations in which they lived, and consonant with the Old Testament.

Contrary to popular misconception, the New Testament canon was not summarily decided in large, bureaucratic Church council meetings, but rather developed very slowly over many centuries. By the 300's, almost all churches had independently reached the same canon. However, this is not to say that no councils touched the issue of the canon. Some of these include the [[Council of Trent]] (also called the Tridentine Conucil) of 1546 for [[Roman Catholicism]] (by vote: 24 yea, 15 nay, 16 abstain),<ref>{{cite book |title=The Canon of the New Testament: Its Origin, Development, and Significance |first=Bruce M. |last=Metzger |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=March 13, 1997 |ISBN=0198269544 |pages=p. 246 |quote="Finally on 8 April 1546, by a vote of 24 to 15, with 16 abstensions, the Council issued a decree (''De Canonicis Scripturis'') in which, for the first time in the history of the Church, the question of the contents of the Bible was made an absolute article of faith and confirmed by an anathema."}}</ref> the [[Thirty-Nine Articles]] of 1563 for the [[Church of England]], the [[Westminster Confession of Faith]] of 1647 for [[Calvinism]], and the [[Synod of Jerusalem]] of 1672 for [[Eastern Orthodoxy]]. Although these councils did include statements about the canon, they were only reaffirming the existing canon which was reached by mutual agreement over many centuries--they were just making it official.

According to the [[Catholic Encyclopedia]] article on the [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03274a.htm Canon of the New Testament]: "The idea of a complete and clear-cut canon of the New Testament existing from the beginning, that is from Apostolic times, has no foundation in history. The Canon of the New Testament, like that of the Old, is the result of a development, of a process at once stimulated by disputes with doubters, both within and without the Church, and retarded by certain obscurities and natural hesitations, and which did not reach its final term until the dogmatic definition of the [[Council of Trent|Tridentine Council]]."

In the first three centuries of the Christian Church, [[Early Christianity]], there seems not to have been a New Testament canon that was complete and universally recognized.

One of the earliest attempts at solidifying a canon was made by [[Marcion]], c. 140 AD, who accepted only a modified version of Luke ([[Gospel of Marcion]]) and ten of Paul's letters, while rejecting the Old Testament entirely. His unorthodox canon was rejected by a majority of Christians, as was he and his theology, [[Marcionism]]. [[Adolf Harnack]] in ''Origin of the New Testament'' (1914)[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/harnack/origin_nt.v.vi.html] argued that the orthodox Church at this time was largely an Old Testament Church (one that "follows the Testament of the Creator-God") without a New Testament canon and that it gradually formulated its New Testament canon in response to the challenge posed by Marcion. <ref> Palmer, 1881. Edwin Palmer, The Greek Testament with the Readings Adopted by the Revisers of the Authorised Version. London: Simon Wallenberg Press, 2007. ISBN 1843560232 </ref>

The [[Muratorian fragment]], dated at between 170 (based on an internal reference to [[Pope Pius I]] and arguments put forth by [[Bruce Metzger]]) and as late as the end of the 4th century (according to the [[Anchor Bible Series#Anchor Bible Dictionary|Anchor Bible Dictionary]]), provides the earliest known New Testament canon attributed to mainstream (that is, not Marcionite) Christianity. It is similar, but not identical, to the modern New Testament canon.

The oldest clear endorsement of Mark, Matthew, Luke, and John being the only legitimate gospels was written c. 180 AD It was a claim made by Bishop [[Irenaeus]] in his polemic ''Against the Heresies'', for example [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.ix.iv.xii.html III.XI.8]: "It is not possible that the Gospels can be either more or fewer in number than they are. For, since there are four zones of the world in which we live, and four principal winds, while the Church is scattered throughout all the world, and the “pillar and ground” of the Church is the Gospel and the spirit of life; it is fitting that she should have four pillars, breathing out immortality on every side, and vivifying men afresh."

At least, then, the books considered to be authoritative included the four gospels and many of the letters of Paul. [[Justin Martyr]], Irenaeus, and [[Tertullian]] (all 2nd century) held the letters of Paul to be on par with the Hebrew Scriptures as being divinely inspired, yet others rejected him. Other books were held in high esteem but were gradually relegated to the status of [[New Testament Apocrypha]].

[[Eusebius]], c. 300, gave a detailed list of New Testament writings in his ''Ecclesiastical History'' [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-01/Npnf2-01-08.htm#P1497_696002 Book 3], Chapter XXV:
:"1... First then must be put the holy quaternion of the [[Gospels]]; following them the [[Acts of the Apostles]]... the [[Pauline Epistles|epistles of Paul]]... the [[First Epistle of John|epistle of John]]... the [[First Epistle of Peter|epistle of Peter]]... After them is to be placed, if it really seem proper, the [[Apocalypse of John]], concerning which we shall give the different opinions at the proper time. These then belong among the '''accepted writings'''."

:"3 Among the '''disputed writings''' <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[Antilegomena]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>, which are nevertheless recognized by many, are extant the so-called [[epistle of James]] and that of [[Epistle of Jude|Jude]], also the [[Second Epistle of Peter|second epistle of Peter]], and those that are called the [[Second Epistle of John|second]] and [[Third Epistle of John|third of John]], whether they belong to the [[John the Evangelist|evangelist]] or to another person of the same name. Among the rejected [Kirsopp Lake translation: "not genuine"] writings must be reckoned also the [[Acts of Paul]], and the so-called [[Shepherd of Hermas|Shepherd]], and the [[Apocalypse of Peter]], and in addition to these the extant [[epistle of Barnabas]], and the so-called [[Didache|Teachings of the Apostles]]; and besides, as I said, the [[Apocalypse of John]], if it seem proper, which some, as I said, reject, but which others class with the accepted books. And among these some have placed also the [[Gospel of the Hebrews|Gospel according to the Hebrews]]... And all these may be reckoned among the '''disputed books'''."

:"6... such books as the [[Gospel of Peter|Gospels of Peter]], of [[Gospel of Thomas|Thomas]], of [[Gospel of Matthias|Matthias]], or of any others besides them, and the [[Acts of Andrew]] and [[Acts of John|John]] and the other apostles... they clearly show themselves to be the fictions of [[heretics]]. Wherefore they are not to be placed even among the rejected writings, but are all of them to be cast aside as absurd and impious."

Revelation is counted as both '''accepted''' (Kirsopp Lake translation: "Recognized") and '''disputed''', which has caused some confusion over what exactly Eusebius meant by doing so. From other writings of the Church Fathers, we know that it was disputed with several canon lists rejecting its canonicity. EH 3.3.5 adds further detail on Paul: "Paul's fourteen epistles are well known and undisputed. It is not indeed right to overlook the fact that some have rejected the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]], saying that it is disputed by the church of Rome, on the ground that it was not written by Paul." EH 4.29.6 mentions the [[Diatessaron]]: "But their original founder, Tatian, formed a certain combination and collection of the Gospels, I know not how, to which he gave the title Diatessaron, and which is still in the hands of some. But they say that he ventured to paraphrase certain words of the apostle [Paul], in order to improve their style."<ref> Palmer, 1881. Edwin Palmer, The Greek Testament . London: Simon Wallenberg Press, 2007. ISBN 1843560232 </ref>

The New Testament canon as it is now was first listed by [[Athanasius of Alexandria|St. Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria]], in 367, in a letter written to his churches in Egypt, [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-04/Npnf2-04-93.htm Festal Letter 39]. Also cited is the [[Council of Rome]], but not without controversy. That canon gained wider and wider recognition until it was accepted at the [[Synods of Carthage|Third Council of Carthage]] in 397. Even this council did not settle the matter, however. Certain books continued to be questioned, especially [[Epistle of James|James]] and [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]]. Even as late as the 16th century, theologian and reformer [[Martin Luther]] questioned (but in the end did not reject) the [[Epistle of James]], the [[Epistle of Jude]], the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]] and the [[Book of Revelation]]. Even today, [[German language|German-language]] [[Luther Bible]]s are printed with these four books at the end of the canon, rather than their traditional order for other Christians. Due to the fact that some of the recognized Books of the Holy Scripture were having their canonicity questioned by Protestants in the 16th century, the Council of Trent reaffirmed the ''traditional canon'' (that is for Catholics the canon of the [[Council of Rome]]) of the Scripture as a [[dogma]] of the Catholic Church.

==Early manuscripts==
The early [[Biblical manuscript|New Testament manuscripts]] can be classified into certain major families or types of text. A "text-type" is the name given to a family of texts with a common ancestor. It must be noted that many early manuscripts can be composed of several different text-types. For example, [[Codex Washingtonianus]] consists of only the four gospels, and yet, different parts are written in different text-types. Four distinctive New Testament text-types have been defined:

The [[Alexandrian text-type]] is usually considered the best and most faithful at preserving the original; it is usually brief and austere. The main examples are the [[Codex Vaticanus]], [[Codex Sinaiticus]] and [[Bodmer Papyri]].

The [[Western text-type]] has a fondness for paraphrase and is generally the longest. Most significant is the [[Acts of the Apostles#Manuscripts|Western version of Acts]], which is 10% longer. The main examples are the [[Codex Bezae]], [[Codex Claromontanus]], [[Codex Washingtonianus]], [[Vetus Latina|Old Latin versions]] (prior to the [[Vulgate]]), and quotes by [[Marcion]], [[Tatian]], [[Irenaeus]], [[Tertullian]] and [[Cyprian]].

The [[Caesarean text-type]] is a mixture of Western and Alexandrian types and is found in the [[Chester Beatty Papyri]] and is quoted by [[Eusebius]], [[Cyril of Jerusalem]] and Armenians.

The [[Byzantine text-type]] is the textform that is contained in a majority of the extant manuscripts and thus is often called the "Majority Text." The origin of this text is debated among scholars. Some scholars, observing that few Byzantine readings exist among early uncial manuscript witnesses, contend that the text formed late and contains conflated readings. Other scholars look to the shear number of consistent witnesses to the Byzantine textform, and the existence of readings which parallel the Byzantine textform in very early translations, as evidence that the Byzantine textform is probably the closest text to that originally penned by the New Testament authors. The Byzantine textform can be found in the [[Gospels]] of [[Codex Alexandrinus]], later [[uncial]] texts and most [[minuscule]] texts. A variant of the Byzantine text, called the [[Textus Receptus]], is the basis of [[Erasmus]]'s printed Greek New Testament of 1516, which became the basis of the 1611 [[King James Version]] of the English New Testament.

Most modern English versions of the New Testament are based on critical reconstructions of the Greek text, such as the [[United Bible Societies]]' Greek New Testament or Nestle-Alands' [[Novum Testamentum Graece]], which have a pronounced Alexandrian character.

==Additions==
Over the years, there have been a number of possible additions to the original text, such as:
*[[Mark 16#The Longer Ending|Mark 16:9-20]]
*Luke 22:19b-20,43-44
*[[Pericope Adulteræ|John 7:53-8:11]]
*[[Comma Johanneum|1 John 5:7b–8a]]

In addition, there are a large number of variant readings, see [[Bruce Metzger]]'s ''Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament (1994)'' for details.

==Authority==
All Christian groups respect the New Testament, but they differ in their understanding of the nature, extent, and relevance of its authority. Views of the authoritativeness of the New Testament often depend on the concept of ''[[inspiration]]'', which relates to the role of God in the formation of the New Testament. Generally, the greater the role of God in one's doctrine of inspiration, the more one accepts the [[doctrine]] of [[Biblical inerrancy]] and/or authoritativeness of the Bible. One possible source of confusion is that these terms are difficult to define, because many people use them interchangeably or with very different meanings. This article will use the terms in the following manner:
*''Infallibility'' relates to the absolute correctness of the Bible in matters of doctrine.
*''Inerrancy'' relates to the absolute correctness of the Bible in factual assertions (including historical and scientific assertions).
*''Authoritativeness'' relates to the correctness of the Bible in questions of practice in morality.

Christian scholars such as Professor [[Peter Stoner]] see the Bible having compelling and detailed fulfilled [[Bible prophecy]] and argue for the Bible's inspiration. This is argued to show that the Bible is authoritative, since it is argued that only God knows the future. A common objection in the West regarding this matter is that the burden of proof is on [[miracle]]s, which, by [[Occam's Razor]], should only be considered when all ordinary explanations fail. [[C. S. Lewis]], [[Norman Geisler]], [[William Lane Craig]], and Christians who engage in [[Christian apologetics]] have argued that miracles are reasonable and plausible. [http://www.comereason.org/phil_qstn/phi060.asp] [http://www.christiananswers.net/q-eden/edn-t011.html] [http://www.leaderu.com/offices/billcraig/docs/miracles.html][http://www.tektonics.org/gk/hume01.html]{{PDFlink|[http://www.ses.edu/journal/articles/2.1Hoffman.pdf]|133&nbsp;[[Kibibyte|KiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 136387 bytes -->}} [http://christian-thinktank.com/mqx.html]. On the other hand, in the West those who do not believe in miracles often use the arguments of [[David Hume]], [[Benedict de Spinoza]], or the arguments of [[Deism]]. [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/miracles/#Hum][http://atheism.about.com/od/weeklyquotes/a/spinoza01.htm][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deism].

All of these concepts depend for their meaning on the supposition that the text of Bible has been properly interpreted, with consideration for the intention of the text, whether [[literal]] [[history]], [[allegory]] or [[poetry]], etc. Especially the doctrine of inerrancy is variously understood according to the weight given by the interpreter to scientific investigations of the world.

===Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy===
For the [[Roman Catholic]] and [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, there are two strands of revelation, the Bible, and the (rest of the) [[Apostolic Succession|Apostolic Tradition]]. Both of them are interpreted by the teachings of the Church. In Catholic terminology the Teaching Office is called the [[Magisterium]]; in Orthodox terminology the authentic interpretation of scripture and tradition is limited, in the final analysis, to the [[Canon law#Orthodox Churches|Canon Law]] of the [[Ecumenical council]]s. Both sources of revelation are considered necessary for proper understanding of the tenets of the faith. The Roman Catholic view is expressed clearly in the [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]] (1992):
<blockquote>
§ 83: As a result the Church, to whom the transmission and interpretation of [[Revelation]] is entrusted, does not derive her certainty about all revealed truths from the holy Scriptures alone. Both Scripture and Tradition must be accepted and honoured with equal sentiments of devotion and reverence.
<br />
§ 107: The inspired books teach the truth. Since therefore all that the inspired authors or sacred writers affirm should be regarded as affirmed by the Holy Spirit, we must acknowledge that the books of Scripture firmly, faithfully, and without error teach that truth which God, for the sake of our salvation, wished to see confided to the Sacred Scriptures.
</blockquote>

===Protestantism===
Following the doctrine of [[sola scriptura]], Protestants believe that their traditions of faith, practice and interpretations carry forward what the scriptures teach, and so tradition is not a source of authority in itself. Their traditions derive authority from the Bible, and are therefore always open to reevaluation. This openness to doctrinal revision has extended in [[Liberal Christianity|Liberal]] Protestant traditions even to the reevaluation of the doctrine of Scripture upon which the Reformation was founded, and members of these traditions may even question whether the Bible is infallible in doctrine, inerrant in historical and other factual statements, and whether it has uniquely divine authority. However, the adjustments made by modern [[Protestantism|Protestants]] to their doctrine of Scripture vary widely.

====American Evangelical and fundamentalist Protestantism====
Certain American conservatives, [[Fundamentalist Christianity|fundamentalists]] and [[neo-evangelicalism|evangelicals]] believe that the Scriptures are both human and divine in origin: human in their manner of composition, but divine in that their source is God, the Holy Spirit, who governed the writers of scripture in such a way that they recorded nothing at all contrary to the truth. Fundamentalists accept the enduring authority and impugnity of a prescientific interpretation of the Bible. In the United States this particularly applies to issues such as the [[ordination of women]], [[abortion]], and [[homosexuality]]. However, although American evangelicals are overwhelmingly opposed to such things, other evangelicals are increasingly willing to consider that the views of the biblical authors may have been culturally conditioned, and they may even argue that there is room for change along with cultural norms and scientific advancements.
Both fundamentalists and evangelicals profess belief in the inerrancy of the Bible. In the US the fundamentalists' stronger emphasis on literal interpretation has led to the rejection of [[evolution]], which contradicts the doctrine of [[Creationism]].

Evangelicals, on the other hand, tend to avoid interpretations of the Bible that would directly contradict generally accepted scientific assertions of fact. They do not impute error to biblical authors, but rather entertain various theories of literary intent which might give credibility to human progress in knowledge of the world, while still accepting the divine inspiration of the scriptures.

Within the US, the [[Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy]] (1978) is an influential statement, articulating evangelical views on this issue. Paragraph four of its summary states: "Being wholly and verbally God-given, Scripture is without error or fault in all its teaching, no less in what it states about God's acts in creation, about the events of world history, and about its own literary origins under God, than in its witness to God's saving grace in individual lives."

Critics of such a position point out that there are many statements that Jesus makes in the Gospels or that Paul makes in his epistles, even to the point of making them commands, which are not taken as commands by most advocates of [[Biblical inerrancy]]. Examples of this are Jesus' command to the disciples to sell all they have and give the money to the poor so as to gain treasure in the [[Kingdom of Heaven]] (Mark 10:21), or Paul's calls to imitate him in [[celibacy]] (1 Cor 7:8). Other sections of the Bible, such as the second half of John chapter six, where Jesus commands that the disciples eat his flesh and drink his blood, are interpreted by most adherents of Biblical Inerrancy as symbolic language rather than literally, as might be expected from the statements of the doctrine. Supporters of Biblical Inerrancy generally argue that these passages are intended to be symbolic, and that their symbolic nature can be seen directly in the text, thus preserving the doctrine.

==== American Mainline and liberal Protestantism====
Mainline American [[Protestant]] denominations, including the [[United Methodist Church]], [[Presbyterian Church USA]], [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America|The Episcopal Church]], and [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America]], do not teach the doctrine of inerrancy as set forth in the Chicago Statement. All of these churches have more ancient doctrinal statements asserting the authority of scripture, but may interpret these statements in such a way as to allow for a very broad range of teaching—from evangelicalism to skepticism. It is not an impediment to ordination in these denominations to teach that the Scriptures contain errors, or that the authors follow a more or less unenlightened ethics that, however appropriate it may have seemed in the authors' time, moderns would be very wrong to follow blindly. For example, [[ordination of women]] is universally accepted in the mainline churches, [[abortion]] is condemned as a grievous social tragedy but not always a personal [[sin]] or a crime against an unborn person, and [[homosexuality]] is increasingly regarded as a genetic propensity or morally neutral preference that should be neither encouraged nor condemned. In North America, the most contentious of these issues among these churches at the present time is how far the ordination of gay men and lesbians should be accepted.

Officials of the Presbyterian Church USA report: "We acknowledge the role of scriptural authority in the Presbyterian Church, but Presbyterians generally do not believe in biblical inerrancy. Presbyterians do not insist that every detail of chronology or sequence or prescientific description in scripture be true in literal form. Our confessions do teach biblical infallibility. Infallibility affirms the entire truthfulness of scripture without depending on every exact detail."

Those who hold a more liberal view of the Bible as a human witness to the glory of God, the work of fallible humans who wrote from a limited experience unusual only for the insight they have gained through their inspired struggle to know God in the midst of a troubled world. Therefore, they tend not to accept such doctrines as inerrancy. These churches also tend to retain the social activism of their Evangelical forebears of the 19th century, placing particular emphasis on those teachings of Scripture that teach compassion for the poor and concern for [[social justice]]. The message of personal [[salvation]] is, generally speaking, of the good that comes to oneself and the world through following the New Testament's [[ethic of reciprocity|Golden Rule]] admonition to love others without hypocrisy or prejudice. Toward these ends, the "spirit" of the New Testament, more than the letter, is infallible and authoritative.

There are some movements that believe the Bible contains the teachings of Jesus but who reject the churches that were formed following its publication. These people believe all individuals can communicate directly with God and therefore do not need guidance or doctrines from a church. These people are known as [[Christian anarchism|Christian anarchists]].

=== Messianic Judaism ===
[[Messianic Judaism]] generally holds the same view of New Testament authority as evangelical Protestants.

==See also==
*[[Non-canonical books referenced in the Bible]]
*[[Gnosticism and the New Testament]]
*[[List of Gospels]]
*[[Expounding of the Law]]
*[[Bible translations]]
*[[Biblical canon]]
*[[Books of the Bible]]
*[[Gospel of Thomas]]
*[[New Testament apocrypha]]
*[[New Testament view on Jesus' life]]
*[[Old Testament]]
*[[Textus Receptus]]
*[[Two-source hypothesis]]
*[[Bodmer Papyri]]
*[[Authorship of the Johannine works]]
*[[Authorship of the Pauline epistles]]
*[[Table of books of Judeo-Christian Scripture]]
*[[:Category:New Testament books]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
*[[Raymond E. Brown]]: ''An Introduction to the New Testament'' (ISBN 0-385-24767-2)
*[[Burton L. Mack]]: ''Who Wrote the New Testament?'', Harper, 1996
*[[Randel McCraw Helms]]: ''Who Wrote the Gospels?''

==External links==
{{external links|date=July 2007}}
===Source text of New Testament===
*[http://www.ntgateway.com/ The New Testament Gateway - Dr. Mark Goodacre.]
*[http://dubitando.no.sapo.pt/qevcon.htm Latin harmony of the Four Gospels: «Live» of Jesus (1)]
*[http://dubitando.no.sapo.pt/qevconn.htm Latin harmony of the Four Gospels: «Live» of Jesus (2)]
*[http://biblefacts.org/history/oldtext.html N.T. Ancient Manuscripts: Partial New Testament Papyri]
*[http://www.verselink.org/ New Testament - King James Version with Greek and Encyclopedic links]
*[http://www.vatican.va/archive/index.htm Vatican Resource Library - Vatican Library Archives]
*[http://onlinebibletalk.com/the-new-testament Complete Text of the New Testament, 1611 King James Version]
* [http://dubitando.no.sapo.pt/tes.htm Tessarôn Euaggeliôn Sumphônia] - The Greek harmony of the Gospels
* [http://bible.christianity.com/Lexicons/NewTestamentGreek/ Searchable New Testament Greek Lexicon]

====Greek====
{{Wikisourcelang|el|Καινή Διαθήκη|New Testament}}
*[http://www.ellopos.net/elpenor/greek-texts/new-testament/default.asp New Testament Byzantine Greek Original] Side by side with the English (King James) and [[Russian Synodal Bible|Russian (Synodal) translation]] - Commentary by the Greek Fathers - Icons from Athos Holy Mountain
*[http://users.otenet.gr/~gmcr New Testament, Greek Polytonic Text according to Ecumenical Patriarchate]
*[http://www.greekbible.com Greek New Testament text (searchable only; no downloads) with lexical aids]
*[http://www-user.uni-bremen.de/~wie/GNT/books.html Greek New Testament] This is a Greek text of the New Testament, specifically the Westcott-Hort text from 1881, combined with the NA26/27 variants]
* [http://apostolicbible.com Greek-English interlinear of the Old & New Testaments - in PDF format.]
* Palmer, Edwin Palmer, [http://www.amazon.com/dp/1843560232 ΚΑΙΝΗ ΔΙΑΘΗΚΗ. The Greek Testament] with the Readings Adopted by the Revisers of the Authorised Version. London: Simon Wallenberg Press, 2007. ISBN 1843560232

====Other languages====
* [http://lutheranchurch.cn/ Lutheran Church China]: - Has the only Traditional Chinese New Testament (1880 A.D.) based on the King James Version.
* [http://www.biblegateway.com ''Bible Gateway 35 languages/50 versions'' at GospelCom.net]
* [http://unbound.biola.edu ''Unbound Bible 100+ languages/versions'' at Biola University]
* [http://www.gospelhall.org/bible/bible.php?passage=Matthew+1 ''Online Bible'' at GospelHall.org - King James Version, English Standard Version, Bible in Basic English, Darby Translation]
*[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/10 King James version of New Testament at Project Gutenberg]
*[http://st-takla.org/Bibles/Holy-Bible.html Full text of the New Testament in English, Arabic, Amharic, Hebrew and French]
*[http://wwwyu.com/web/ Serbian New Testament — full text]
*[http://www.romansonline.com/sources/Nwt/indxNT.asp The New Testament at romansonline.com]
*[http://www.latinvulgate.com/christverse.aspx The Complete Sayings of Christ] The complete collection of Christ's sayings from the New Testament --- in parallel English and Latin.
*[http://www.bursakilisesi.com/kutsalkitap/?tab=2 Online New Testament in Turkish.]

===General references===
*[http://www.ntgateway.com/ New Testament Gateway], sponsored by Duke University
* [http://www.biblialegal.com.br/di.aspx?di=en&url=http://www.biblialegal.com.br/lpt.aspx?testamento=1 New Testament Books]
*[http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/history/chicago.stm.txt Chicago Statement of Biblical Inerrancy]
*[http://www.religioustolerance.org/inerrant.htm Overview of Inerrancy]
*[http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/ccc_toc.htm Catechism of the Catholic Church]
*[http://xrysostom.blogspot.com/2005/07/dating-new-testament.html Ask the Pastor] - a [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] discussion of the dates of writing, compiling, and setting of the canon
*[http://essenes.net/gop31nt.htm ''New Testament Alterations''] from the Order of Nazorean Essenes (Budhist / Gnostic Chritian source)
*[http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=245&letter=N Jewish Encyclopedia: New Testament]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14530a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: New Testament]
*[http://evangelicaltextualcriticism.blogspot.com Evangelical Textual Criticism Blog]
*[http://www.errantskeptics.org/DatingNT.htm Dating the NT - list of opinions of scholars]
*[http://www.wlsessays.net/subjects/N/nsubind.htm#NT Scholarly articles on the New Testament from the Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary Library]

===Development and authorship===
*[http://www.religioustolerance.org/chr_ntb1.htm http://www.religioustolerance.org/chr_ntb1.htm]
*[http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/Trowbridge/NT_Hist.htm http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/Trowbridge/NT_Hist.htm]
*[http://www.mindspring.com/~scarlson/synopt/ Synoptic Problem Home Page]

{{Books of the Bible}}
{{Christianityfooter}}

[[Category:1st century books]]
[[Category:New Testament|*]]
[[Category:Greek literature (post-classical)]]
[[Category:Rastafarian texts]]

[[ang:Nīwu Gecȳþnes]]
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Revision as of 00:31, 15 April 2008

SPOILER:

JESUS DIES

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