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The '''Congress of Berlin''' was aimed at the revision of the [[Treaty of San Stefano]]. It effectively disavowed Russia's victory over the decaying Ottoman Empire in the [[Russo-Turkish War, 1877-78]].
The '''Congress of Berlin''' was an infamous attempt by the Great Powers to preclude [[Bulgaria]] and several Orthodox Slavic states from gaining independence after centuries of the Muslim Ottoman yoke. The congress was aimed at the revision of the [[Treaty of San Stefano]] and at keeping [[Constantinople]] in Muslim hands. It effectively disavowed Russia's victory over the decaying Ottoman Empire in the [[Russo-Turkish War, 1877-78]].


==Proceedings==
==Proceedings==
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The meetings were held at Chancellor Bismarck's residence, the [[Radziwill Palace]], beginning on [[June 13]], [[1878]]. The congress revised or eliminated 18 of the 29 articles in the [[Treaty of San Stefano]]. Furthermore, using as a foundation the [[Treaty of Paris (1856)|treaties of Paris (1856)]] and of [[London]] (1871), it effected a rearrangement of the Eastern situation.
The meetings were held at Chancellor Bismarck's residence, the [[Radziwill Palace]], beginning on [[June 13]], [[1878]]. The congress revised or eliminated 18 of the 29 articles in the [[Treaty of San Stefano]]. Furthermore, using as a foundation the [[Treaty of Paris (1856)|treaties of Paris (1856)]] and of [[London]] (1871), it effected a rearrangement of the Eastern situation.


==Main issues==
==Russophobia==


The principal mission of the World Powers at the congress was to deal a fatal blow to the burgeoning movement of [[pan-Slavism]]. The movement caused serious concern in [[Berlin]] and particularly in [[Vienna]], which was afraid that the repressed Slavic nationalities would revolt against the [[Habsburgs]]. [[London]] and [[Paris]] were nervous about diminishing influence of the [[Ottoman Empire]] in the south and about Russian cultural expansion to the south, where both Britain and France were poised to colonize [[Egypt]] and [[Palestine]].
⚫
The [[Russia]]ns, led by chancellor [[Alexander Gorchakov]], had managed to create the [[Bulgaria]]n autonomous principality under [[Ottoman Empire|Turkey]]'s nominal rule, thus fuelling British fears of growing Russian influence in the East (see also the [[Great Game]]). This state had access to the [[Aegean Sea]] and comprised a very large portion of [[Macedonia]]. The [[United Kingdom]] feared Russian dominance in the Balkans would disturb balance of power in Europe.


⚫
The [[Russia]]ns, led by chancellor [[Alexander Gorchakov]], had managed to create the [[Bulgaria]]n autonomous principality under [[Ottoman Empire|Turkey]]'s nominal rule, thus fuelling British fears of growing Russian influence in the East (see also the [[Great Game]]). This state had access to the [[Aegean Sea]] and comprised a very large portion of [[Macedonia]]. The [[United Kingdom]] at once recalled its favourite doctrine of the balance of power, which the largest empire in the world often used to further its imperialist ends.
⚫
Ceding to Russian pressure, Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro were declared independent principalities. Bulgaria however was only guaranteed autonomy and guarantees against Turkish oppression. The [[Dobruja]] was given to Romania; Montenegro obtained Niksitch, Podgoritza, and [[Antivari]]. The [[Porte]] agreed to obey the specifications contained in the Organic Law of [[1868]], and to guarantee the civil rights all of its subjects. [[Bosnia]] and [[Herzegovina]] were placed under the administration of Austria-Hungary.

⚫
Ceding to Russian pressure, Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro were declared independent principalities. The indepenence of Bulgaria, however, was denied: it was "guaranteed" autonomy and guarantees against Turkish oppression. The [[Dobruja]] was given to Romania; Montenegro obtained Niksitch, Podgoritza, and [[Antivari]]. The [[Porte]] agreed to obey the specifications contained in the Organic Law of [[1868]], and to guarantee the civil rights of non-Mohammedan subjects. [[Bosnia]] and [[Herzegovina]] were placed under the administration of Austria-Hungary.


==Other matters==
==Other matters==


Other similar changes to the boundaries of various political entities were wrought, and political stipulations were made that affected all of the nations in some way or other. In other matters, the Great Powers agreed that the status of the Turkish Empire was to be decided by the Powers jointly, and not by any one of them.
Other similar changes to the boundaries of various political entities were wrought, and political stipulations were made that affected all of the nations in some way or other. In other matters, the Great Powers agreed that the status of the Turkish Empire was to be decided by the Powers jointly, and not by any one of them. Russia accused Germany of treacherous behavior against her, an old friend, and she resented it. Distrust, enmity, and a long-lasting schism developed between the two nations.

Various other items did not progress smoothly. Italy was dissatisfied with the results of the Congress, and the situation between [[Greece]] and [[Turkey]] was left unresolved. The establishment of a border between Greece and Turkey failed to be accomplished. In [[1881]], after protracted negotiations, the Great Powers accepted the compromise offered by the [[Porte]]. Neither nation was satisfied, however, and tensions continued until the [[Porte]] declared a war on [[Greece]] on April 17th, [[1897]]. Fighting continued until [[Russia]] demanded that it be stopped. An armistice was concluded on May 18, 1897, but more fighting lay ahead in the twentieth century.
Various other items did not progress smoothly. Italy was dissatisfied with the results of the Congress, and the situation between [[Greece]] and [[Turkey]] was left unresolved. The establishment of a border between Greece and Turkey failed to be accomplished. In [[1881]], after protracted negotiations, the Great Powers accepted the compromise offered by the [[Porte]]. Neither nation was satisfied, however, and tensions continued until the [[Porte]] declared a war on [[Greece]] on April 17th, [[1897]]. Fighting continued until [[Russia]] demanded that it be stopped. An armistice was concluded on May 18, 1897, but more fighting lay ahead in the twentieth century. So, the congress sowed the seeds of further conflicts, including the [[Balkan Wars]], the [[First World War]], and the [[Armenian Genocide]].


==Delegates==
==Delegates==

Revision as of 12:21, 11 November 2005

The Congress of Berlin was an infamous attempt by the Great Powers to preclude Bulgaria and several Orthodox Slavic states from gaining independence after centuries of the Muslim Ottoman yoke. The congress was aimed at the revision of the Treaty of San Stefano and at keeping Constantinople in Muslim hands. It effectively disavowed Russia's victory over the decaying Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Turkish War, 1877-78.

Proceedings

The Congress was attended by the United Kingdom, Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Italy, Russia and Turkey. Delegates from Greece, Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro attended the sessions in which their states were concerned, but were not members of the congress.

The congress was demanded by the rivals of the Russian Empire, particularly by Austria-Hungary and Great Britain and hosted in 1878 by Otto von Bismarck. The Congress of Berlin proposed and ratified the Treaty of Berlin.

The meetings were held at Chancellor Bismarck's residence, the Radziwill Palace, beginning on June 13, 1878. The congress revised or eliminated 18 of the 29 articles in the Treaty of San Stefano. Furthermore, using as a foundation the treaties of Paris (1856) and of London (1871), it effected a rearrangement of the Eastern situation.

Russophobia

The principal mission of the World Powers at the congress was to deal a fatal blow to the burgeoning movement of pan-Slavism. The movement caused serious concern in Berlin and particularly in Vienna, which was afraid that the repressed Slavic nationalities would revolt against the Habsburgs. London and Paris were nervous about diminishing influence of the Ottoman Empire in the south and about Russian cultural expansion to the south, where both Britain and France were poised to colonize Egypt and Palestine.

The Russians, led by chancellor Alexander Gorchakov, had managed to create the Bulgarian autonomous principality under Turkey's nominal rule, thus fuelling British fears of growing Russian influence in the East (see also the Great Game). This state had access to the Aegean Sea and comprised a very large portion of Macedonia. The United Kingdom at once recalled its favourite doctrine of the balance of power, which the largest empire in the world often used to further its imperialist ends.

Ceding to Russian pressure, Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro were declared independent principalities. The indepenence of Bulgaria, however, was denied: it was "guaranteed" autonomy and guarantees against Turkish oppression. The Dobruja was given to Romania; Montenegro obtained Niksitch, Podgoritza, and Antivari. The Porte agreed to obey the specifications contained in the Organic Law of 1868, and to guarantee the civil rights of non-Mohammedan subjects. Bosnia and Herzegovina were placed under the administration of Austria-Hungary.

Other matters

Other similar changes to the boundaries of various political entities were wrought, and political stipulations were made that affected all of the nations in some way or other. In other matters, the Great Powers agreed that the status of the Turkish Empire was to be decided by the Powers jointly, and not by any one of them. Russia accused Germany of treacherous behavior against her, an old friend, and she resented it. Distrust, enmity, and a long-lasting schism developed between the two nations.

Various other items did not progress smoothly. Italy was dissatisfied with the results of the Congress, and the situation between Greece and Turkey was left unresolved. The establishment of a border between Greece and Turkey failed to be accomplished. In 1881, after protracted negotiations, the Great Powers accepted the compromise offered by the Porte. Neither nation was satisfied, however, and tensions continued until the Porte declared a war on Greece on April 17th, 1897. Fighting continued until Russia demanded that it be stopped. An armistice was concluded on May 18, 1897, but more fighting lay ahead in the twentieth century. So, the congress sowed the seeds of further conflicts, including the Balkan Wars, the First World War, and the Armenian Genocide.

Delegates

Great Britain

Russia

Germany

Austria-Hungary

France

Italy

Turkey

Greece

Romania

Serbia

Montenegro

Sources

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