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The '''Rockwell scale''' is a [[hardness]] scale based on the [[indentation hardness]] of a material. The Rockwell test determines the hardness by measuring the depth of penetration of an indenter under a large load compared to the penetration made by a preload.<ref>E.L. Tobolski & A. Fee, "Macroindentation Hardness Testing," ''ASM Handbook, Volume 8: Mechanical Testing and Evaluation'', ASM International, 2000, p 203-211, ISBN 0-87170-389-0.</ref> There are different scales, which are denoted by a single letter, that use different loads or indenters. The result, which is a dimensionless number, is noted by HRX where X is the scale letter.
The '''Rockwell scale''' is a [[hardness]] scale based on the [[indentation hardness]] of a material. The Rockwell test determines the hardness by measuring the depth of penetration of an indenter under a large load compared to the penetration made by a preload.<ref>E.L. Tobolski & A. Fee, "Macroindentation Hardness Testing," ''ASM Handbook, Volume 8: Mechanical Testing and Evaluation'', ASM International, 2000, p 203-211, ISBN 0-87170-389-0.</ref> There are different scales, which are denoted by a single letter, that use different loads or indenters. The result, which is a dimensionless number, is noted by HRX where X is the scale letter.


When testing metals, indentation hardness correlates linearly with tensile strength.<ref>[http://www.springerlink.com/content/q86642448t84g267/ Correlation of Yield Strength and Tensile Strength with Hardness for Steels , E.J. Pavlina and C.J. Van Tyne, Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, Volume 17, Number 6 / December 2008]</ref> This important relation permits economically important nondestructive testing of bulk metal deliveries with lightweight, even portable equipment, such as hand-held Rockwell hardness testers.{{Citation needed|date=December 2009}}
When testing metals, indentation hardness correlates linearly with [[tensile strength]].<ref>[http://www.springerlink.com/content/q86642448t84g267/ Correlation of Yield Strength and Tensile Strength with Hardness for Steels , E.J. Pavlina and C.J. Van Tyne, Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, Volume 17, Number 6 / December 2008]</ref> This important relation permits economically important nondestructive testing of bulk metal deliveries with lightweight, even portable equipment, such as hand-held Rockwell hardness testers.{{Citation needed|date=December 2009}}


== History ==
== History ==

Revision as of 11:02, 22 November 2010

A hardness tester of the Rockwell type.
A closeup of the business end of a Rockwell-type hardness tester.

The Rockwell scale is a hardness scale based on the indentation hardness of a material. The Rockwell test determines the hardness by measuring the depth of penetration of an indenter under a large load compared to the penetration made by a preload.[1] There are different scales, which are denoted by a single letter, that use different loads or indenters. The result, which is a dimensionless number, is noted by HRX where X is the scale letter.

When testing metals, indentation hardness correlates linearly with tensile strength.[2] This important relation permits economically important nondestructive testing of bulk metal deliveries with lightweight, even portable equipment, such as hand-held Rockwell hardness testers.[citation needed]

History

The differential depth hardness measurement was conceived in 1908 by a Viennese professor Paul Ludwik in his book Die Kegelprobe (crudely, "the cone trial").[3] The differential-depth method subtracted out the errors associated with the mechanical imperfections of the system, such as backlash and surface imperfections. The Brinell hardness test, invented in Sweden, was developed earlier—in 1900—but it was slow, not useful on fully hardened steel, and left too large an impression to be considered nondestructive.

The Rockwell hardness tester, a differential-depth machine, was co-invented by Connecticut natives Hugh M. Rockwell (1890–1957) and Stanley P. Rockwell (1886–1940). A patent was applied for on July 15, 1914.[4] The requirement for this tester was to quickly determine the effects of heat treatment on steel bearing races. The application was subsequently approved on February 11, 1919, and holds patent number #1,294,171. At the time of invention, both Hugh and Stanley Rockwell (not direct relations) worked for the New Departure Manufacturing Co. of Bristol, CT. New Departure was a major ball bearing manufacturer that, in 1916, became part of United Motors and, shortly thereafter, General Motors Corp. After leaving the Connecticut company, Stanley Rockwell, then in Syracuse, NY, applied for an improvement to the original invention on September 11, 1919, which was approved on November 18, 1924. The new tester holds patent #1,516,207.[5][6] Rockwell moved to West Hartford, CT, and made an additional improvement in 1921.[6] Stanley collaborated with instrument manufacturer Charles H. Wilson of the Wilson-Mauelen Company in 1920 to commercialize his invention and develop standardized testing machines.[7] Stanley started a heat-treating firm circa 1923, the Stanley P. Rockwell Company, which still exists in Hartford, CT. The later-named Wilson Mechanical Instrument Company has changed ownership over the years, and was most recently acquired by Instron Corp. in 1993.[8]

Operation

The determination of the Rockwell hardness of a material involves the application of a minor load followed by a major load, and then noting the depth of penetration, vis a vis, hardness value directly from a dial, in which a harder material gives a higher number. The chief advantage of Rockwell hardness is its ability to display hardness values directly, thus obviating tedious calculations involved in other hardness measurement techniques.

It is typically used in engineering and metallurgy. Its commercial popularity arises from its speed, reliability, robustness, resolution and small area of indentation.

In order to get a reliable reading the thickness of the test-piece should be at least 10 times the depth of the indentation.[9] Also, readings should be taken from a flat perpendicular surface, because round surfaces give lower readings. A correction factor can be used if the hardness must be measured on a round surface.[10]

Scales and values

There are several alternative scales, the most commonly used being the "B" and "C" scales. Both express hardness as an arbitrary dimensionless number.

Various Rockwell scales[11]
Scale Abbreviation Load Indenter Use
A HRA 60 kgf 120° diamond cone† Tungsten carbide
B HRB 100 kgf 1⁄16-inch-diameter (1.6 mm) steel sphere Aluminium, brass, and soft steels
C HRC 150 kgf 120° diamond cone Harder steels
D HRD 100 kgf 120° diamond cone
E HRE 100 kgf 1⁄8-inch-diameter (3.2 mm) steel sphere
F HRF 60 kgf 1⁄16-inch-diameter (1.6 mm) steel sphere
G HRG 150 kgf 1⁄16-inch-diameter (1.6 mm) steel sphere
†Also called a brale indenter
  • Except for one very limited exception,[clarification needed] the steel indenter balls have been replaced by tungsten carbide balls of the varying diameters. Scales using the ball indenter have a "W" suffix added to the scale name to indicate usage of the carbide ball, for example "HR30T" is now "HR30TW".[citation needed]

The superficial Rockwell scales use lower loads and shallower impressions on brittle and very thin materials. The 45N scale employs a 45-kgf load on a diamond cone-shaped Brale indenter, and can be used on dense ceramics. The 15T scale employs a 15-kgf load on a 1⁄16-inch-diameter (1.6 mm) hardened steel ball, and can be used on sheet metal.

Readings below HRC 20 are generally considered unreliable, as are readings much above HRB 100.

Typical values

  • Very hard steel (e.g. a good knife blade): HRC 55–62 (Hardened tool steels such as D2)[12]
  • Axes, chisels, etc.: HRC 40–45 (about 1045 carbon steel)[citation needed]
  • Brass: HRB 55 (Low brass, UNS C24000, H01 Temper) to HRB 93 (Cartridge Brass, UNS C26000 (260 Brass), H10 Temper)[13]

Several other scales, including the extensive A-scale, are used for specialized applications. There are special scales for measuring case-hardened specimens.

Standards

  • International (ISO)
  • ISO 6508-1: Metallic materials -- Rockwell hardness test -- Part 1: Test method (scales A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, K, N, T)
  • ISO 2039-2: Plastics -- Determination of hardness -- Part 2: Rockwell hardness
  • ASTM E18 : Standard methods for Rockwell hardness and Rockwell superficial hardness of metallic materials

See also

References

  1. ^ E.L. Tobolski & A. Fee, "Macroindentation Hardness Testing," ASM Handbook, Volume 8: Mechanical Testing and Evaluation, ASM International, 2000, p 203-211, ISBN 0-87170-389-0.
  2. ^ Correlation of Yield Strength and Tensile Strength with Hardness for Steels , E.J. Pavlina and C.J. Van Tyne, Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, Volume 17, Number 6 / December 2008
  3. ^ G.L. Kehl, The Principles of Metallographic Laboratory Practice, 3rd Ed., McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1949, p 229.
  4. ^ H.M. Rockwell & S.P. Rockwell, "Hardness-Tester," US Patent 1 294 171, Feb 1919.
  5. ^ S.P. Rockwell, "The Testing of Metals for Hardness, Transactions of the American Society for Steel Treating, Vol. II, No. 11, August 1922, p 1013–1033.
  6. ^ a b S.P. Rockwell, "Hardness-Testing Machine," US Patent 1 516 207, Nov 1924.
  7. ^ V.E. Lysaght, Indentation Hardness Testing, Reinhold Publishing Corp., 1949, p 57-62.
  8. ^ R.E. Chinn, "Hardness, Bearings, and the Rockwells," Advanced Materials & Processes, Vol 167 #10, October 2009, p 29-31.
  9. ^ Fundamentals of Rockwell Hardness Testing, retrieved 2010-09-10
  10. ^ PMPA's Designer's Guide: Heat treatment, retrieved 2009-06-19.
  11. ^ Smith, William F.; Hashemi, Javad (2001), Foundations of Material Science and Engineering (4th ed.), McGraw-Hill, p. 229, ISBN 0-07-295358-6
  12. ^ Knife blade materials
  13. ^ matweb.com, accessed 2010-06-23
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