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Alkaline batteries and alkaline cells (a battery being a collection of multiple cells) are a type of disposable battery or rechargeable battery dependent upon the reaction between zinc and manganese dioxide (Zn/Mn O₂).

Compared with zinc-carbon batteries of the Leclanché or zinc chloride types, while all produce approximately 1.5 volts per cell, alkaline batteries have a higher energy density and longer shelf-life. Compared with silver-oxide batteries, which alkalines commonly compete against in button cells, they have lower energy density and shorter lifetimes but lower cost.

The alkaline battery gets its name because it has an alkaline electrolyte of potassium hydroxide, instead of the acidic ammonium chloride or zinc chloride electrolyte of the zinc-carbon batteries which are offered in the same nominal voltages and physical size. Other battery systems also use alkaline electrolytes, but they use different active materials for the electrodes.

History

The alkaline battery was invented by Canadian engineer Lewis Urry in the 1950s while working for the Eveready Battery company.

Chemistry

In an alkaline battery, the anode (negative terminal) is made of zinc powder (which allows more surface area for increased rate of reaction therefore increased electron flow) and the cathode (positive terminal) is composed of manganese dioxide. Alkaline batteries are comparable to zinc-carbon batteries, but the difference is that alkaline batteries use potassium hydroxide (KOH) as an electrolyte (mixed with the powdered zinc) rather than ammonium chloride or zinc chloride.

The half-reactions are:^[1]

Zn (s) + 2OH⁻ (aq) → ZnO (s) + H₂O (l) + 2e⁻

2MnO₂ (s) + H₂O (l) + 2e⁻ →Mn₂O₃ (s) + 2OH⁻ (aq)

Capacity

Capacity of an alkaline battery is larger than an equal size Leclanché or zinc-chloride cell because the manganese dioxide anode material is purer and denser, and space taken up by internal components such as current collectors is less. An alkaline cell can provide between three and five times as much operating time.^[2]

The capacity of an alkaline battery is strongly dependent on the load. An AA-sized alkaline battery might have an effective capacity of 3000 mAh at low drain, but at a load of 1 ampere, which is common for digital cameras, the capacity could be as little as 700 mAh.^[3] The voltage of the battery declines steadily during use, so the total usable capacity depends on the cut-off voltage of the application. Unlike Leclanche cells the alkaline cell delivers about as much capacity on intermittent or continuous light loads. On a heavy load, capacity is reduced on continuous discharge compared with intermittent discharge, but the reduction is less than for Leclanche cells.

Voltage

The nominal voltage of a fresh alkaline cell is 1.5 V. Multiple voltages may be achieved with series of cells. The effective zero-load voltage of a non discharged alkaline battery varies from 1.50 to 1.65 V, depending on the chosen manganese dioxide and the contents of zinc oxide in the electrolyte. The average voltage under load depends on discharge and varies from 1.1 to 1.3 V. The fully discharged cell has a remaining voltage in the range of 0.8 to 1.0 V.

Current

The amount of current an alkaline battery can deliver is roughly proportional to its physical size. This is a result of decreasing internal resistance as the internal surface area of the cell increases. A general rule of thumb is that an AA alkaline battery can deliver 700 mA without any significant heating. Larger cells, such as C and D cells, can deliver more current. Applications requiring high currents of several amperes, such as high powered flashlights and portable stereos, will require D-sized cells to handle the increased load. they last longer for the bigger they are.

Construction

Alkaline batteries are manufactured in standardized cylindrical forms interchangeable with zinc-carbon batteries, and in button forms. Several individual cells may be interconnected to form a true "battery", such as those sold for use with flashlights and the 9 volt transistor-radio battery.^[4]

A cylindrical cell is contained in a drawn steel can, which is the cathode current collector. The cathode mixture is a compressed paste of manganese dioxide with carbon powder added for increased conductivity. The paste may be pressed into the can or deposited as pre-molded rings. The hollow center of the cathode is lined with a separator, which prevents mixing of the anode and cathode materials and short-circuiting of the cell. The separator is made of a non-woven layer of cellulose or a synthetic polymer. The separator must conduct ions and remain stable in the highly alkaline electrolyte solution.

The anode is composed of a dispersion of zinc powder in a gel containing the potassium hydroxide electrolyte. To prevent gassing of the cell at the end of its life, more manganese dioxide is used than required to react with all the zinc.

When describing standard AAA, AA, C, sub-C and D size cells, the anode is connected to the flat end while the cathode is connected to the end with the raised button.

Recharging of alkaline batteries

Some alkaline batteries are designed to be recharged (see rechargeable alkaline battery), but most are not. Attempts to recharge may cause rupture, or the leaking of hazardous liquids which will corrode the equipment.

Leaks

Over time, alkaline batteries are prone to leaking potassium hydroxide, a caustic agent that can cause respiratory, eye and skin irritation ^[5] This can be avoided by not attempting to recharge disposable alkaline cells, not mixing different battery types in the same device, replacing all of the batteries at the same time, storing in a dry place, and removing batteries for storage of devices.

Once a leak has formed due to corrosive penetration of the outer steel shell, potassium hydroxide forms a feathery crystalline structure that grows and spreads out from the battery over time, following up metal electrodes to circuit boards where it commences oxidation of copper traces and other components, leading to permanent circuitry damage.

The leaking crystalline growths can also emerge from seams around battery covers to form a furry coating outside the device, that then damages objects in contact with the leaking device such as varnish on wood shelves, and then oxidation and graying of the wood itself.

Disposal

When introduced in the 1960s, alkaline batteries contained a small amount of mercury amalgam to control side reactions at the zinc cathode. Improvements in the purity and consistency of materials have allowed manufacturers to reduce the mercury content in modern cells.^[6] Unlike other types of batteries, alkaline batteries are allowed to be disposed of as regular domestic waste in some locations. This, however, may not be environmentally friendly, as some alkaline batteries produced before 1996 contain mercury.^[7]^[8] For example the state of California has deemed all batteries as hazardous waste when discarded, and has banned the disposal of batteries with other domestic waste.^[9] In the US, one company shreds and separates the battery case metals, manganese and zinc.[1] Another company mixes batteries in as a feedstock in steel making furnaces, to make low-grade steel such as rebar; the zinc fumes are recovered separately.[2] In Europe battery disposal is controlled by the WEEE regulations, and as such alkaline batteries must not be thrown in with domestic waste. They should be disposed through local recycling stations/waste dumps. In the EU most stores that sell batteries are required by law to accept old batteries for recycling.

References

^ Battery FAQ at www.powerstream.com
^ Reddy, page 10.14
^ Alkaline Drain Chart at greenbatteries.com
^ Reedy, pages 10.6 through 10.12 ,
^ This alkali particularly attacks aluminum, a common material for flashlights, which can be damaged by leaking alkaline batteries.
^ David Linden, Thomas B. Reddy (ed). Handbook Of Batteries 3rd Edition. McGraw-Hill, New York, 2002 ISBN 0-07-135978-8 page 10.2
^ Battery Recycling and Disposal Guide at ehso.com
^ Household battery fact sheet at dec.ny.gov
^ CA Integrated Waste Management Board

External links

Template:GalvanicCells

[1] Battery FAQ at www.powerstream.com

[2] Reddy, page 10.14

[3] Alkaline Drain Chart at greenbatteries.com

[4] Reedy, pages 10.6 through 10.12 ,

[5] This alkali particularly attacks aluminum, a common material for flashlights, which can be damaged by leaking alkaline batteries.

[6] David Linden, Thomas B. Reddy (ed). Handbook Of Batteries 3rd Edition. McGraw-Hill, New York, 2002 ISBN 0-07-135978-8 page 10.2

[7] Battery Recycling and Disposal Guide at ehso.com

[8] Household battery fact sheet at dec.ny.gov

[9] CA Integrated Waste Management Board

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 ==Current==
 The amount of [[Electrical current|current]] an alkaline battery can deliver is roughly proportional to its physical size. This is a result of decreasing internal resistance as the internal surface area of the cell increases. A general rule of thumb is that an AA alkaline battery can deliver 700 mA without any significant heating. Larger cells, such as C and D cells, can deliver more current. Applications requiring high currents of several amperes, such as high powered [[flashlight]]s and portable stereos, will require D-sized cells to handle the increased load.
+they last longer for the bigger they are.
 ==Construction==