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Although these teachings emboldened secular authorities to give women fewer rights than men, they also helped form the concept of [[chivalry]].<ref>Power (1995), p. 2.</ref> Chivalry was influenced by a new Church attitude towards Mary, the mother of Jesus.<ref name=shahar25>Shahar (2003), p. 25.</ref> This "ambivalence about women's very nature" was shared by most major religions in the Western world.<ref name=bitel102>Bitel (2002), p. 102.</ref> The development of [[Marian devotions]] and the image of the Virgin Mary as the "second Eve" also influenced the status of women during the Middle Ages. Women who had been looked down upon as daughters of [[Eve]], came to be looked upon as objects of veneration and inspiration. The medieval development of [[chivalry]], with the concept of the honor of a lady and the ensuing knightly devotion to it, was not only derived from [[Roman Catholic Mariology|Mariological]] thinking, but also contributed to it.<ref>{{cite book |title=International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: K-P |first=Geoffrey W. |last=Bromiley |year=1994 |ISBN=0802837832 |page=272}}</ref> The medieval veneration of the Virgin Mary was contrasted by the fact that ordinary women, specially those outside aristocratic circles were looked down upon, and at a time when women could be viewed as the source of evil, the concept of the Virgin Mary as mediator to God positioned her as a source of refuge for man, affecting the changing attitudes towards women.<ref>{{cite book |title=Daughters of the church |year=1987 |first=Ruth |last=Tucker |ISBN=0310457416 |page=168}}</ref>
Although these teachings emboldened secular authorities to give women fewer rights than men, they also helped form the concept of [[chivalry]].<ref>Power (1995), p. 2.</ref> Chivalry was influenced by a new Church attitude towards Mary, the mother of Jesus.<ref name=shahar25>Shahar (2003), p. 25.</ref> This "ambivalence about women's very nature" was shared by most major religions in the Western world.<ref name=bitel102>Bitel (2002), p. 102.</ref> The development of [[Marian devotions]] and the image of the Virgin Mary as the "second Eve" also influenced the status of women during the Middle Ages. Women who had been looked down upon as daughters of [[Eve]], came to be looked upon as objects of veneration and inspiration. The medieval development of [[chivalry]], with the concept of the honor of a lady and the ensuing knightly devotion to it, was not only derived from [[Roman Catholic Mariology|Mariological]] thinking, but also contributed to it.<ref>{{cite book |title=International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: K-P |first=Geoffrey W. |last=Bromiley |year=1994 |ISBN=0802837832 |page=272}}</ref> The medieval veneration of the Virgin Mary was contrasted by the fact that ordinary women, specially those outside aristocratic circles were looked down upon, and at a time when women could be viewed as the source of evil, the concept of the Virgin Mary as mediator to God positioned her as a source of refuge for man, affecting the changing attitudes towards women.<ref>{{cite book |title=Daughters of the church |year=1987 |first=Ruth |last=Tucker |ISBN=0310457416 |page=168}}</ref>


[[File:Speculum4.jpg|thumb|left|A 12th century ''[[Speculum Virginum]]'' illustration.]]
According to Bynum, there was an unprecendented flowering of mysticism among female members of religious orders in the Catholic Church during the 12th through 15th centuries. Petra Munro describes these women as "trangressing gender norms" by violating the dictates of the [[Apostle Paul]] that "women should not speak, teach or have authority" (1 Timothy 2:12).<ref name=Munro65 />
According to Bynum, there was an unprecedented flowering of mysticism among female members of religious orders in the Catholic Church during the 12th through 15th centuries. Petra Munro describes these women as "trangressing gender norms" by violating the dictates of the [[Apostle Paul]] that "women should not speak, teach or have authority" (1 Timothy 2:12).<ref name=Munro65 /> An example is provided by the 12th century [[Speculum Virginum]] (''Mirror of Virgins'' in Latin) document which provides one of the earliest comprehensive theologies of cloistered religious life. The document mainly consists of a hypothetical dialogue between Peregrinus, a male religious teacher, and Theodora, a female disciple. The dialogue seeks to strengthen the determination and resolve of Theodora (and hence by example, other readers) to live life as a virgin dedicated to God.<ref>Sorrentino, Janet ''[[The Medieval Review]]'' April 12, 2001 [https://scholarworks.iu.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/2022/5739/04.12.01.html?sequence=1 Medieval Review at Indiana University]</ref>

The growth of the various manuscript of the Speculum Virginum in the middle ages had a particular resonance for women who sought a dedicated religious life. Yet, it not only impacted the development of female monastic life, but in turn influenced the proliferation of male monastic orders.<ref>''Listen daughter: the Speculum virginum and the formation of religious women'' by Constant J. Mews 2001 ISBN 0312240082 pages vii and 1</ref>


===20th century===
===20th century===

Revision as of 01:17, 13 July 2011

Jesus at the home of Martha and Mary, by Otto van Veen, c. 1600

Over the course of its history, the Church has influenced the status of women, condemning infanticide, divorce, incest, polygamy and counting the marital infidelity of men as equally sinful to that of women.[1][2][3]

The role of women in the Church has become a controversial topic in Catholic social thought.[4]

Historical development

Early Christianity

According to the Book of Acts, the early church attracted significant numbers of women; many of these were prominent in cultures that afforded women more substantial roles than Judaism did. According to Alister McGrath, Christianity had the effect of undermining traditional roles of both women and slaves in two ways:

  1. By asserting that all were "one in Christ", regardless of whether they were Jew or Gentile, male or female, master or slave.
  2. By asserting that all could share in Christian fellowship and worship together, once again regardless of whether they were Jew or Gentile, male or female, master or slave.

McGrath describes Paul's egalitarian approach as "profoundly liberating" in that it implied new freedoms for women.[5]

McGrath comments that, although Christianity did not effect an immediate change in cultural attitudes towards women, the effect of Paul's egalitarianism was to "place a theoretical time bomb under them." He asserts that, ultimately, "the foundations of these traditional distinctions would be eroded to the point where they could no longer be maintained."[6] Similarly, Suzanne Wemple notes that, although Christianity did not eliminate sexual discrimination in the late Roman Empire, it did offer women "the opportunity to regard themselves as independent personalities rather than as someone else's daughter, wife, or mother".[7]

Medieval era

Petra Munro contrasts the early Christian Church as being inclusive of women as opposed to the medieval Church which she describes as being "based on a gender hierarchy".[8]

According to historian Shulamith Shahar, "[s]ome historians hold that the Church played a considerable part in fostering the inferior status of women in medieval society in general" by providing a "moral justification" for male superiority and by accepting practices such as wife-beating.[9] Despite these laws, some women, particularly abbesses, gained powers that were never available to women in previous Roman or Germanic societies.[10]

Although these teachings emboldened secular authorities to give women fewer rights than men, they also helped form the concept of chivalry.[11] Chivalry was influenced by a new Church attitude towards Mary, the mother of Jesus.[12] This "ambivalence about women's very nature" was shared by most major religions in the Western world.[13] The development of Marian devotions and the image of the Virgin Mary as the "second Eve" also influenced the status of women during the Middle Ages. Women who had been looked down upon as daughters of Eve, came to be looked upon as objects of veneration and inspiration. The medieval development of chivalry, with the concept of the honor of a lady and the ensuing knightly devotion to it, was not only derived from Mariological thinking, but also contributed to it.[14] The medieval veneration of the Virgin Mary was contrasted by the fact that ordinary women, specially those outside aristocratic circles were looked down upon, and at a time when women could be viewed as the source of evil, the concept of the Virgin Mary as mediator to God positioned her as a source of refuge for man, affecting the changing attitudes towards women.[15]

A 12th century Speculum Virginum illustration.

According to Bynum, there was an unprecedented flowering of mysticism among female members of religious orders in the Catholic Church during the 12th through 15th centuries. Petra Munro describes these women as "trangressing gender norms" by violating the dictates of the Apostle Paul that "women should not speak, teach or have authority" (1 Timothy 2:12).[8] An example is provided by the 12th century Speculum Virginum (Mirror of Virgins in Latin) document which provides one of the earliest comprehensive theologies of cloistered religious life. The document mainly consists of a hypothetical dialogue between Peregrinus, a male religious teacher, and Theodora, a female disciple. The dialogue seeks to strengthen the determination and resolve of Theodora (and hence by example, other readers) to live life as a virgin dedicated to God.[16]

The growth of the various manuscript of the Speculum Virginum in the middle ages had a particular resonance for women who sought a dedicated religious life. Yet, it not only impacted the development of female monastic life, but in turn influenced the proliferation of male monastic orders.[17]

20th century



Current status

Further information: New feminism

According to Catherine Wessinger, Catholic lay women have been increasingly called to play important roles in the Catholic Church; this trend is particularly strong in the United States.[18]

Cynthia Stewart asserts that, although the hierarchy of the Church is entirely male as a result of the [[ Catholic Church doctrine on the ordination of women| restriction against ordination of women]], the vast majority of Catholics that participate in lay ministry are women. According to Stewart, approximately 85 percent of all Church roles that do not require ordination are performed by women.[19]Catherine

Stewart identifies several reasons for the increased role that lay women play in the Catholic Church:

  1. a shift in cultural attitudes leading to greater acceptance of women in leadership roles
  2. an increase in outreach ministries targeted at groups with whom women have traditionally worked (e.g. elderly and children)
  3. a greater willingness on the part of women to accept lower salaries than those offered by the secular world.[19]

The importance of women to the "life and mission of the Church" was emphasized by Pope John Paul II who wrote:

"The presence and the role of women in the life and mission of the Church, although not linked to the ministerial priesthood, remain absolutely necessary and irreplaceable. As the Declaration Inter Insigniores points out, 'The Church desires that Christian women should become fully aware of the greatness of their mission: today their role is of capital importance both for the renewal and humanization of society and for the rediscovery by believers of the true face of the Church' " ( No. 10).[20]

New feminism is a Catholic philosophy which emphasizes a belief in an integralcomplementarity of men and women, rather than the superiority of men over women or women over men.[21] New feminism, as a form ofdifference feminism, supports the idea that men and women have different strengths, perspectives, and roles, while advocating for the equal worth and dignity of both sexes. Among its basic concepts are that the most important differences are those that are biological rather than cultural. New Feminism holds that women should be valued as child bearers, home makers but also as individuals with equal worth to men.[22]

Blessed Virgin Mary

Main article: Blessed Virgin Mary

Mary Reichardt comments that the Blessed Virgin Mary is "paradoxically, both virgin and mother, both submissive and the preeminent mulier fortis".[23]

As the mother of Jesus Christ, Mary has a central role in the life of the Roman Catholic Church. Within the Catholic Church, the Virgin Mary is seen, not only as the Mother of God but also as the Mother of the Church. The Roman Catholic veneration of her as the Blessed Virgin Mary has grown over time both in importance and manifestation, not only in prayer but in art, poetry and music.[24][25][26][27] Popes have encouraged this veneration but from time to time have also taken steps to reform it.[note 1] Overall, there are significantly more titles, feasts and venerative Marian practices among Roman Catholics than any other Christians traditions.[28]

Since the end of the 19th century, a number of progressive and liberal perspectives of Mariology have been presented, ranging from feminist criticisms to interpretations based on modern psychology and liberal Catholic viewpoints. These views are generally critical of the Roman Catholic approach to Mariology as well as the Eastern Orthodox church which has even more Marian emphasis within its official liturgy.[29][30][31]

Some feminists contend that as with other women saints such as Joan of Arc the image of Mary is a construct of the patriarchal mind. They argue that Marian dogmas and doctrines and the typical forms of Marian devotion reinforce patriarchy by offering women temporary comfort from the ongoing opperession inflicted on them by male dominated churches and societies.[30] In the feminist view, old gender stereotypes persist within traditional Marian teachings and theological doctrines. To that end books on "feminist Mariology" have been published to present opposing interpretations and perspectives.[32]

Since the Reformation many Christians have opposed Marian venerations and that trend has continued into the 21st century among progressive and liberal Christians who see the high level of attention paid to the Virgin Mary both as being without sufficient grounding inScripture and as distraction from the worship due to Christ.[33][34]

Groups of liberal Catholics view the traditional image of the Virgin Mary as presented by the Catholic Church as an obstacle towards realization of the goal of womanhood, and as a symbol of the systemic patriarchal oppression of women within the Church. Moreover, some liberal Catholics view the cultivation of the traditional image of Mary as a method of manipulation of Catholics at large by the Church hierarchy.[35] Other liberal Christians argue that the modern concepts of equal opportunity for men and women does not resonate well with the humble image of Mary, obediently and subserviently kneeling before Christ.[36]

Virginity

Christian orthodoxy accepts the New Testament claim that Mary, the mother of Jesus, was a virgin at the time Jesus was conceived, based on the accounts in the gospels of Matthewand Luke. The Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Oriental Orthodox denominations, additionally hold to the dogma of the perpetual virginity of Mary.

Virgo inter Virgines (The Blessed virgin Mary with other holy virgins), anonymous, Bruges, last quarter of the 15th Century.

The Catholic Encyclopedia says: "There are two elements in virginity: the material element, that is to say, the absence, in the past and in the present, of all complete and voluntary delectation, whether from lust or from the lawful use of marriage; and the formal element, that is the firm resolution to abstain forever from sexual pleasure." And, "Virginity is irreparably lost by sexual pleasure, voluntarily and completely experienced."[37] However, for the purposes of consecrated virginsit is canonically enough that they have never been married or lived in open violation of chastity.

Thomas Aquinas, emphasizing that acts other than copulation destroy virginity, but also clarifying that involuntary sexual pleasure or pollution does not destroy virginity says in his Summa Theologica, "Pleasure resulting from resolution of semen may arise in two ways. If this be the result of the mind's purpose, it destroys virginity, whether copulation takes place or not. Augustine, however, mentions copulation, because such like resolution is the ordinary and natural result thereof. On another way this may happen beside the purpose of the mind, either during sleep, or through violence and without the mind's consent, although the flesh derives pleasure from it, or again through weakness of nature, as in the case of those who are subject to a flow of semen. On such cases virginity is not forfeit, because such like pollution is not the result of impurity which excludes virginity."[38]

Some female saints and blesseds are indicated by the church as Virgin. These were consecrated virgins, nuns or unmarried women known for a life in chastity. Being referred to as Virgin can especially mean being a member of the Ordo Virginum (Order of virgins), which applies to the consecrated virgins living in the world or inmonastic orders.

Marriage

Main article: Catholic marriage
"Therefore what God has joined together, let not man separate." (Gospel of Matthew 19:6) Matrimony, The Seven Sacraments, Rogier van der Weyden, ca. 1445.

Catholic Marriage is a "covenant by which a man and a woman establish between themselves a partnership of the whole of life and which is ordered by its nature to the good of the spouses and the procreation and education of offspring. [It] has been raised by Christ the Lord to the dignity of a sacrament between the baptised."[39] In theRoman Rite, it is ordinarily celebrated in a Nuptial Mass.

The nature of the covenant requires that the two participants be one man and one woman, that they be free to marry, that they willingly and knowingly enter into a valid marriage contract, and that they validly execute the performance of the contract.

Divorce

Main article: Christian views of divorce § Roman Catholic Church

Divorce in the ancient world left many women in dire economic and social straits[citation needed]. In the Roman Empire, husbands were allowed to leave their wife, but wives were denied a reciprocal right.[40][41] Early Church Fathers pointed to the Gospel of Mark, which describes Jesus labelling men or women who divorced and remarried as adulterers. Gregory of Nazianzus wrote vehemently against the practice of punishing women who committed adultery while overlooking the same acts by men.

Married women were attracted to the Christian ideal that men and women shared the same obligatory moral code. Women often converted first and introduced the religion to their social network; it was in this way that the religion often spread to the upper classes of society.[42]

As the Church gained greater influence in European society, its teachings were occasionally codified into law. Church teaching heavily influenced the legal concept of marriage.[43] During the Gregorian Reform of the 11th century, the Church developed and codified a view of marriage as a sacrament.[44] In a departure from societal norms, Church law required the consent of both parties before a marriage could be performed[40] and established a minimum age for marriage.[45] The elevation of marriage to a sacrament also made the union a binding contract, with dissolutions overseen by Church authorities.[46][47] Under canon law, spouses could be granted a "divorce a mensa et thoro" ("divorce from bed-and-board"). The husband and wife physically separated and were forbidden to live or cohabit together; but their marital relationship did not fully terminate.[48] Alternatively, Church laws permitted spouses to petition for an annulment with proof that essential conditions for contracting a valid marriage were absent. Ecclesiastical courts would grant a "divorce a vinculo matrimonii", or "divorce from all the bonds of marriage",–essentially ruling that the marriage had never taken place–when presented evidence that the marriage had been invalid from its start.[49][50][51] Although the Church abandoned tradition to allow women the same rights as men to dissolve a marriage,[40][41] in practice, at least throughout the Middle Ages, when an accusation of infidelity was made, men were granted dissolutions more frequently than women.[52]

Over time, Church interpretation of a woman's role in marriage has changed.[citation needed] Church teachings have always affirmed that wives should be "subordinate" to their husbands.[citation needed] This is rooted in several Biblical passages, such as "Let wives also be subject in everything to their husbands" (Eph. 5:24). In modern times, this teaching has been the subject of much controversy, with many scholars decrying the perceived discrimination against women.[citation needed] In <year>, Pope John Paul II clarified that "subordinate" should be defined as a " "mutual subjection out of reverence for Christ" [citation needed] and asserted that "the matrimonial union requires respect for and perfection of the true personal subjectivity of both of them. The woman cannot be made the object of dominion and male possession (MD 10)."[citation needed]


Reproductive issues

Contraception

Main article: Christian views on contraception § Roman Catholic Church

The Roman Catholic Church is morally opposed to contraception and orgasmic acts outside of the context of marital intercourse. This belief dates back to the first centuries of Christianity.[53] Such acts are considered illicit mortal sins, with the belief that all licit sexual acts must be open to procreation.

The sexual revolution of the 1960s precipitated Pope Paul VI's 1968 encyclical Humanae Vitae (On Human Life) which rejected the use of contraception, including sterilization, claiming these work against the intimate relationship and moral order of husband and wife by directly opposing God's will.[54] It approved Natural Family Planning as a legitimate means to limit family size.[54]

The only form of birth control permitted is abstinence. Modern scientific methods of "periodic abstinence" such as Natural Family Planning (NFP) were counted as a form of abstinence by Pope Paul VI in his 1968 encyclical Humanae Vitae.[55] The following is the condemnation of contraception:

Therefore We base Our words on the first principles of a human and Christian doctrine of marriage when We are obliged once more to declare that the direct interruption of the generative process already begun and, above all, all direct abortion, even for therapeutic reasons, are to be absolutely excluded as lawful means of regulating the number of children. Equally to be condemned, as the magisterium of the Church has affirmed on many occasions, is direct sterilization, whether of the man or of the woman, whether permanent or temporary. Similarly excluded is any action which either before, at the moment of, or after sexual intercourse, is specifically intended to prevent procreation—whether as an end or as a means.

The Church's rejection of the use of condoms has provoked criticism, especially with respect to countries where the incidence of AIDS and HIV has reached epidemic proportions. The Church maintains that in countries like Kenya and Uganda, where behavioral changes are encouraged alongside condom use, greater progress in controlling the disease has been made than in those countries solely promoting condoms.[56][57]

A number of other documents provide more insight into the Church's position on contraception. The commission appointed to study the question in the years leading up to Humanae Vitae issued two reports, a majority report explaining why the Church could change its teaching on contraception, and a minority report which explains the reasons for upholding the traditional Christian view on contraception.[58] In 1997, the Vatican released a document entitled "Vademecum for Confessors" (2:4) which states "[t]he Church has always taught the intrinsic evil of contraception."[59] Furthermore, many Church Fathers condemned the use of contraception.[60][61]

The 1987 document Donum Vitae opposes in-vitro fertilization on grounds that it is harmful to embryos. Later on, the 2008 instruction Dignitas Personae denounces embryonic manipulations and new methods of contraception.

Some Catholics have voiced significant disagreement with the Church's stance on contraception.[62] The Winnipeg Statement of the Canadian Bishops was widely seen as a dissenting document for recognizing that many Catholics find it "either extremely difficult or even impossible to make their own all elements of this doctrine" and reasserting the Catholic principle of primacy of conscience,[63] a position that they said should be properly interpreted, since they insisted that "a Catholic Christian is not free to form his conscience without consideration of the teaching of the magisterium, in the particular instance exercised by the Holy Father in an encyclical letter".[64] Theologians such as Charles Curran have also criticized the stance of Humanae Vitae on artificial birth control. According to the American Enterprise Institute, 78% of Catholics say they believe the church should allow Catholics to use birth control.[65]

Abortion

Main article: Catholic Church and abortion

The Roman Catholic Church opposes all forms of abortion procedures whose intended and primary purpose is to destroy an embryo, blastocyst, zygote or fetus. Catholics who support this position say that it is based on a belief in the equality of all human life, and that human life begins at conception. 'Indirect abortion,' by which Catholic jurists mean a particular procedure in the case of ectopic pregnancy where the death of the fetus is said to be a secondary effect of the procedure, may be permissible. Catholics who procure abortion are considered to be automatically excommunicated, as per Canon 1398 of the Latin Rite Code of Canon Law or Canon 1450 §2 of the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches.

The Catholic Church regards abortion as a 'moral evil'.[66] Abortion was condemned by the Church as early as the first century, again in the fourteenth century and again in 1995 with Pope John Paul II's encyclical Evangelium Vitae (Gospel of Life).[67] This encyclical condemned the "culture of death" which the pope often used to describe the societal embrace of contraception, abortion, euthanasia, suicide, capital punishment, and genocide.[67][68]

Role of women in the Church

Religious vocations

Nuns in traditionalhabit singing Gregorian chant
Nuns at Work in the Cloister, by Henriette Browne

In the Catholic Church, a nun is a woman who has taken solemn vows (the male equivalent is often called a "monk" or "friar", although the positions actually entail very different religious origins and constitute very different duties of the church {{citation}}: Empty citation (help)). The only distinction between a nun and a sister is that nuns have solemn vows and sisters have simple vows. Nuns are usually cloistered or enclosed to the degree established by the rule of the religious institution they enter;[69]exceptions include one branch of Visitandines and the Ursulines.

In the Roman Catholic tradition, there are a number of different orders of nuns each with its own charism or special character.

Ordination of women

Main article: Catholic Church doctrine on the ordination of women

Feminists have disagreed with Church teachings on the ordination of women and have worked together with a coalition of American nuns to lead the Church to reconsider its position.[70] They stated that many of the major Church documents were supposedly full of anti-female prejudice and a number of studies were conducted to discover how this alleged prejudice developed when it was deemed contrary to the openness of Jesus.[70] These events led Pope John Paul II to issue the 1988 encyclicalMulieris Dignitatem (On the Dignity of Women), which declared that women had a different, yet equally important role in the Church.[71][72]

The Catholic Church doctrine on the ordination of women, as expressed in the current canon law and the Catechism of the Catholic Church, is that: "Only a baptized man (In Latin, vir) validly receives sacred ordination."[73] Insofar as priestly and episcopal ordination are concerned, the Church teaches that this requirement is a matter of divine law, and thus doctrinal.[74] The requirement that only males can receive ordination to the diaconate has not been promulgated as doctrinal by the Church's magisterium, though it is clearly at least a requirement according to canon law.[75][76]

The reservation of priestly ordination to men is perhaps the sorest spot among contemporary critics of the Catholic Church’s treatment of women.[77] Several Protestant religious traditions have authorized women ministers and preachers. Many churches in the Anglican Communion already permit women to serve at the altar. The Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox are committed to an exclusively male priesthood and these two churches comprise three fourths of all Christians in the world.

In 1976, the Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith discussed the issue of the ordination of women and issued a Declaration on the Question of the Admission of Women to the Ministerial Priesthood which concluded that for various doctrinal, theological, and historical reasons, the Church "... does not consider herself authorized to admit women to priestly ordination". The most important reasons stated were first, the Church's determination to remain faithful to its constant tradition, second, its fidelity to Christ's will, and third, the idea of male representation due to the "sacramental nature" of the priesthood. The Biblical Commission, an advisory commission that was to study the exclusion of women from the ministerial priesthood from a biblical perspective, had three opposing findings. They were, "that the New Testament does not settle in a clear way... whether women can be ordained as priests, [that] scriptural grounds alone are not enough to exclude the possibility of ordaining women, [and that] Christ's plan would not be transgressed by permitting the ordination of women."[78] In recent years, responding to questions about the matter, the Church has issued a number of documents repeating the same position.[79] In 1994, Pope John Paul II declared the question closed in his letter Ordinatio Sacerdotalis, stating: "Wherefore, in order that all doubt may be removed regarding a matter of great importance…I declare that the Church has no authority whatsoever to confer priestly ordination on women and that this judgment is to be definitively held by all the Church's faithful."[80]

Cardinal Ratzinger (Pope Benedict XVI) too has reiterated that the church teaching regarding women’s ordination is “founded on the written Word of God, and from the beginning constantly preserved and applied in the Tradition of the Church, it has been set forth infallibly by the ordinary and universal Magisterium.” In 1994 the encyclical Ordinatio Sacerdotalis (On Ordination to the Priesthood) further explained that the Church follows the example of Jesus, who chose only men for the specific priestly duty.[81][82]

Role of women in the family


Notes

  1. ^ For example Pope Paul VI reduced and rearranged the number of feast days March 12, 1969, Sanctitas Clarior. As did several of his predecessors.

See also

References

  1. ^ Bokenkotter, Thomas (2004). A Concise History of the Catholic Church. Doubleday. p. 56. ISBN 0385505841.
  2. ^ Noble, p. 230.
  3. ^ Stark, p. 104.
  4. ^ Labrie, Ross (1997). The Catholic imagination in American literature. University of Missouri Press. p. 12.
  5. ^ McGrath, Alister E. (1997). An introduction to Christianity. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 238.
  6. ^ McGrath, Alister E. (1997). An introduction to Christianity. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 240.
  7. ^ Wemple, Suzanne Fonay (1985). Women in Frankish society: marriage and the cloister, 500 to 900. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 19.
  8. ^ a b Munro, Petra (2011). Engendering Curriculum History. Routledge. p. 65.
  9. ^ Shahar (2003), p. 88. "The ecclesiastical conception of the inferior status of women, deriving from Creation, her role in Original Sin and her subjugation to man, provided both direct and indirect justification for her inferior standing in the family and in society in medieval civilization. It was not the Church which induced husbands to beat their wives, but it not only accepted this custom after the event, if it was not carried to excess, but, by proclaiming the superiority of man, also supplied its moral justification."
  10. ^ Shahar (2003), p. 12.
  11. ^ Power (1995), p. 2.
  12. ^ Shahar (2003), p. 25.
  13. ^ Bitel (2002), p. 102.
  14. ^ Bromiley, Geoffrey W. (1994). International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: K-P. p. 272. ISBN 0802837832.
  15. ^ Tucker, Ruth (1987). Daughters of the church. p. 168. ISBN 0310457416.
  16. ^ Sorrentino, Janet The Medieval Review April 12, 2001 Medieval Review at Indiana University
  17. ^ Listen daughter: the Speculum virginum and the formation of religious women by Constant J. Mews 2001 ISBN 0312240082 pages vii and 1
  18. ^ Wessinger, Catherine (1996). Religious institutions and women's leadership: new roles inside the mainstream. University of South Carolina Press. p. 21.
  19. ^ a b Stewart, Cynthia (2008). The Catholic Church: A Brief Popular History. Saint Mary's Press. p. 322.
  20. ^ Ordinatio Sacerdotalis, Pope John Paul II
  21. ^ [Allen, Sr. Prudence Allen. 'Man-Woman Complementarity: the Catholic Inspiration.' Logos 9, issue 3 (Summer 2006)http://www.endowonline.com/File/spComplementary.pdf]
  22. ^ Curran, Charles E. (2008). Catholic moral theology in the United States: a history. Georgetown University Press. p. 214.
  23. ^ Reichardt, Mary R. (2001). Catholic women writers: a bio-bibliographical sourcebook. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. xxviii.
  24. ^ Santa Maria articlehttp://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,730158-1,00.html
  25. ^ Merriam-Webster's encyclopedia of world religions by Wendy Doniger, 1999 ISBN 0877790442 page 696[1]
  26. ^ Symbolic scores: studies in the music of the Renaissance by Willem Elders 1997 ISBN 9004099700 page 151 [2]
  27. ^ Maiden and mother: Prayers, hymns, devotions, and songs to the Beloved Virgin Mary Throughout the Year by Margaret M. Miles 2001 ISBN 0860123057 page vii[3]
  28. ^ Encyclopedia of Catholicism by Frank K. Flinn, J. Gordon Melton 2007 ISBN 081605455X pages 443–444
  29. ^ Encyclopedia of feminist literature by Mary Ellen Snodgrass 2006 ISBN 0816060401 page 547
  30. ^ a b The thousand faces of the Virgin Mary by George Henry Tavard 1996 ISBN 0814659144 page 253
  31. ^ Mary is for Everyone by William McLoughlin, Jill Pinnock 1998 ISBN 085244429X page 183
  32. ^ A feminist companion to Mariology by Amy-Jill Levine, Maria Mayo Robbins 2005 ISBN 0826466613 page 147
  33. ^ Progressive Christianity by William A. Vrooman 2005 ISBN 1417998296 page 150
  34. ^ Christianity: the first two thousand years by David Lawrence Edwards 2001 ISBN 0304701270 pages 438-439
  35. ^ Hail Mary?: the struggle for ultimate womanhood in Catholicism by Maurice Hamington 1995 ISBN 0415913047 pages 2 and 36
  36. ^ Blessed one: Protestant perspectives on Mary by Beverly Roberts Gaventa, Cynthia L. Rigby 2002 ISBN 0664224385 page 102
  37. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia, 'Virginity'
  38. ^ Aquinas. Summa Theologica, Second Part of the Second Part, Question 152.
  39. ^ "CIC". 1055 §1
  40. ^ a b c Witte (1997), p. 20.
  41. ^ a b Witte (1997), p. 25.
  42. ^ Chadwick (1990), pp. 58–59.
  43. ^ Power (1995), pp. 1–2.
  44. ^ Witte Jr., John (1997). From Sacrament to Contract: Marriage, Religion, and Law in the Western Tradition. Westminster John Knox Press. p. 23. ISBN 0664255434
  45. ^ Shahar (2003), p. 33.
  46. ^ Witte (1997), p. 29.
  47. ^ Witte (1997), p. 36.
  48. ^ Kent's Commentaries on American Law, p. 125, n. 1 (14th ed. 1896).
  49. ^ W. Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England, 428 (Legal Classics Library spec. ed. 1984).
  50. ^ Kent's Commentaries on American Law, p. 1225, n. 1.
  51. ^ E.Coke, Institutes of the Laws of England, 235 (Legal Classics Library spec. ed. 1985).
  52. ^ Shahar (2003), p. 18.
  53. ^ http://www.catholic.com/library/Contraception_and_Sterilization.asp
  54. ^ a b Paul VI, Pope (1968). "Humanae Vitae". Vatican. Retrieved 2 February 2008.
  55. ^ "Humanae Vitae: Encyclical of Pope Paul VI on the Regulation of Birth, July 25, 1968". The Vatican. Retrieved 2006-10-01.
  56. ^ Dugger, Carol (18 May 2006). "Why is Kenya's AIDS rate plummeting?". International Herald Tribune. Retrieved 21 February 2008.
  57. ^ Wilson, Brenda (4 May 2004). "Study: Verbal Warnings Helped Curb AIDS in Uganda". National Public Radio. Retrieved 15 August 2008.
  58. ^ Minority Report
  59. ^ Vademecum
  60. ^ This Rock Magazine: The Fathers Know Best
  61. ^ Fr. Haydon
  62. ^ A summary and restatement of the debate is available in Roderick Hindery. "The Evolution of Freedom as Catholicity in Catholic Ethics." Anxiety, Guilt, and Freedom. Eds. Benjamin Hubbard and Brad Starr, UPA, 1990.
  63. ^ "Canadian Bishops' Statement on the Encyclical "Humanae Vitae"". Retrieved 2006-10-02.
  64. ^ Canadian Conference of Catholic Bishops Plenary Assembly, 18 April 1969, Statement on Family Life and Related Matters
  65. ^ AEI - Short Publications - In Today's Environment, Contraception Could Become a Big Issue
  66. ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church 2271.
  67. ^ a b Bokenkotter, p. 27, p. 154, pp. 493–494.
  68. ^ "The Death Penalty Pro and Con: The Pope's Statement". PBS. Retrieved 12 June 2008.
  69. ^ " Monasteries of nuns which are ordered entirely tocontemplative lifealmost always observe papal cloister, that is, cloister according to the norms given by the Apostolic See. Other monasteries of nuns are to observe a cloister adapted to their proper character and defined in the constitutions."Canon 667 §3, CIC 1983
  70. ^ a b Bokenkotter, pp. 465–466.
  71. ^ John Paul II, Pope (1988). "Mulieris Dignitatem". Vatican. Retrieved 21 February 2008.
  72. ^ Bokenkotter, p. 467.
  73. ^ Codex Iruis Canonici canon 1024, c.f. Catechism of the Catholic Church 1577
  74. ^ "The Catholic Church has never felt that priestly or episcopal ordination can be validly conferred on women," Inter Insigniores, October 15, 1976, section 1
  75. ^ Canonical Implications of Ordaining Women to the Permanent Diaconate, Canon Law Society of America, 1995.
  76. ^ Commentary by the Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith on the Declaration Inter Insigniores.
  77. ^ Bokenkotter, Thomas (2005). A Concise History of the Catholic Church. Random House Digital, Inc. p. 487.
  78. ^ Pierre, Simone M. The Struggle to Serve: the Ordination of Women in the Roman Catholic Church. Jefferson: McFarland and Company, Inc., 1994.
  79. ^ Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith: Inter Insigniores, October 15, 1976; Pope John Paul II: Apostolic Letter Ordinatio Sacerdotalis, May 22, 1994; Pope John Paul II: Apostolic Letter Mulieris Dignitatem, August 15, 1988.
  80. ^ John Paul II in Ordinatio Sacerdotalis , c.f. Apostolic Exhortation Christifideles Laici (30 December 1988), 31
  81. ^ John Paul II, Pope (22 May 1994). "Ordinatio Sacerdotalis". Vatican. Retrieved 2 February 2008.
  82. ^ Cowell, Alan (31 May 1994). "Pope Rules Out Debate On Making Women Priests". The New York Times. Retrieved 12 February 2008.

Sources

  • Bitel, Lisa (2002), Women in early medieval Europe, 400-1100, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521592070
  • Bokenkotter, Thomas (2004), A Concise History of the Catholic Church, Doubleday, ISBN 0385505841
  • Chadwick, Henry (1990), "The Early Christian Community", in John McManners (ed.), The Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0198229283
  • Power, Eileen (1995), Postand, Michael Moissey (ed.), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521595568 {{citation}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  • Shahar, Shulamith (2003), The Fourth Estate: A History of Women in the Middle Ages, New York: Routledge
  • Witte, John (1997), From Sacrament to Contract: Marriage, Religion, and Law in the Western Tradition, Louisvill, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, ISBN 9780664255435
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