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communities <ref name='James Corum'>{{cite web|url=http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pdffiles/PUB648.pdf |title=Training Indigenous Forces in Counterinsurgency: A Tale of Two Insurgencies. |accessdate=2009-05-03 |last=S. Corum |first=James |date=March 1, 2006 |format=pdf |work=[[Strategic Studies Institute]] |publisher=[[U.S. Army War College]] }}</ref> A new separate 'Special Mobile Reserve' unit was created exclusively recruited from the Turkish community.<ref name='James Corum' /> Although EOKA's primary targets were British interests, Cypriots of Turkish descent, especially those serving the colonial security forces soon became targets.<ref name='James Corum' />
communities <ref name='James Corum'>{{cite web|url=http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pdffiles/PUB648.pdf |title=Training Indigenous Forces in Counterinsurgency: A Tale of Two Insurgencies. |accessdate=2009-05-03 |last=S. Corum |first=James |date=March 1, 2006 |format=pdf |work=[[Strategic Studies Institute]] |publisher=[[U.S. Army War College]] }}</ref> A new separate 'Special Mobile Reserve' unit was created exclusively recruited from the Turkish community.<ref name='James Corum' /> Although EOKA's primary targets were British interests, Cypriots of Turkish descent, especially those serving the colonial security forces soon became targets.<ref name='James Corum' />


Communal violence, rare in Cyprus before the insurgency, flared up in 1956 and increased throughout EOKA's campaign.<ref name='James Corum' /> In 1957 the [[Turkish Resistance Organization]] (TMT) came into existence, a rival paramilitary organisation serving Turkish interests{{Citation needed|date=January 2011}}. Although infrequent, EOKA and TMT targeted each others members with ferocity. In the worst period of such violence, in 1958, EOKA killed 55 Turkish Cypriots whilst TMT killed 60 Greeks.<ref>{{cite news | first=Makarios | last=Drousiotis | coauthors= |authorlink= | title=Our Haunted Country | date=2005-04-25 | publisher= | url =http://www.makarios.ws/cgibin/hweb?-A=726&-V=english | work =Politis Newspaper | pages = | accessdate = 2009-05-03 | language = }}</ref>
Communal violence, rare in Cyprus before the insurgency, flared up in 1956 and increased throughout EOKA's campaign.<ref name='James Corum' /> In 1957 the [[Turkish Resistance Organization]] (TMT) came into existence, a rival paramilitary organisation serving Turkish interests. Although infrequent, EOKA and TMT targeted each others members with ferocity. In the worst period of such violence, in 1958, EOKA killed 55 Turkish Cypriots whilst TMT killed 60 Greeks.<ref>{{cite news | first=Makarios | last=Drousiotis | coauthors= |authorlink= | title=Our Haunted Country | date=2005-04-25 | publisher= | url =http://www.makarios.ws/cgibin/hweb?-A=726&-V=english | work =Politis Newspaper | pages = | accessdate = 2009-05-03 | language = }}</ref>


====Events====
====Events====

Revision as of 14:18, 23 August 2011

Not to be confused with EOKA B.
EOKA
LeadersGeorge Grivas
Dates of operation1955–1959
HeadquartersCyprus
IdeologyGreek nationalism, Enosis(union of Cyprus with Greece), Antiimperialism
OpponentsBritish Empire,
Turkish Resistance Organisation

EOKA (Εθνική Οργάνωσις Κυπρίων Αγωνιστών, Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston (Greek for National Organisation of Cypriot Fighters)) but sometimes expanded as Ethnikí Orgánosis Kipriakoú Agónos (Greek for National Organisation of Cypriot Struggle)[2] was a Greek Cypriot nationalist military resistance [3][4] organisation that fought a violent campaign for the end of British rule of Cyprus, as well as for self-determination and for union with Greece (enosis).

Background

The United Kingdom had promised Greece unification with Cyprus if Greece would enter World War I on the side of the Allies; but the Greeks declined this invitation and therefore the promise was never realised. In the 1950s, EOKA organised to free the Greek Cypriots from British rule. The leadership of AKEL at the time (a political party with communist roots), opposed EOKA's military action, advocating the Gandhiesque approach of civil disobedience such as workers' strikes and demonstrations.[5] This came into direct contrast with the previous leadership who some five years previously had organised the plebiscite of 1950, where the vast majority of Greek Cypriots who voted were for the union with Greece (98%).

Ideology

Oath of The Youth Organisation of EOKA

I swear in the name of the Holy Trinity that:

  • I shall work with all my power for the liberation of Cyprus from the British yoke, sacrificing for this even my life.
  • I shall perform without question all the instructions of the organisation which may be entrusted to me and I shall not bring any objection, however difficult and dangerous these may be.
  • I shall not abandon the struggle unless I receive instructions from the leader of the organisation and after our aim has been accomplished.
  • I shall never reveal to anyone any secret of our organisation neither the names of my chiefs nor those of the other members of the organization even if I am caught and tortured.
  • I shall not reveal any of the instructions which may be given me even to my fellow combatants.

If I disobey my oath I shall be worthy of every punishment as a traitor and may eternal contempt cover me.

Signed

EOKA

in Bitter Lemons, by Lawrence Durrell[6]

EOKA was an anticolonial, antiimperialist nationalist organisation with the ultimate goal of "The liberation of Cyprus from the British yoke". Although not stated in its initial declaration of existence which was printed and distributed on the 1st of April 1955, EOKA also had a target of achieving enosis (union of Cyprus with Greece). Despite this ideology being reflected in many of its members (and chiefly its military leader George Grivas) throughout the armed campaign, it was not of universal acceptance. The head of the political arm of EOKA, Makarios, took a more compromising approach especially during the later stages of the struggle.

and there are arguments of collusion with cia for american interests.[7] Ultimately, the intents of the struggle were political, not military. EOKA wanted to attract the attention of the world through high profile operations that would make the press headlines.[8] In his memoirs Grivas admits to "by deeds of heroism and self sacrifice to draw the attention of international public opinion, especially among the allies of Greece".[9]

Armed campaign

File:First Release by EOKA.gif
The first declaration made by EOKA, distributed in April 1955 outlining their raison d’être. See below for English translation.

The first declaration made by EOKA, distributed in April 1955. (Words in capitals kept as such)

EOKA

ANNOUNCEMENT

With God’s help, with faith in the righteousness of our struggle, with the aid of all Hellenism

WE HEREBY TAKE ON THE STRUGGLE TO RID US (Cyprus) OF THE BRITISH YOKE.

With the sacred motto left upon us by our ancestors "EITHER WITH IT, OR ON IT"

CYPRIOT BROTHERS, From the depths of the centuries we are watched by all those who shone upon Greek history to maintain our freedom, those who fought in Marathon, in Salamis, the 300 of Leonidas and those who more recently fought in the Albanian epoch. We are watched by the fighters of ‘21, who taught us that liberation from an occupier always comes through BLOOD. We are also watched by the rest of Hellenism with anticipation, but also with national pride.

Let us respond with deeds, that we “will better” them.

The time has come to show the world that if international diplomacy is UNFAIR and PUSILLANIMOUS, the Cypriot psyche is brave and if the powers that be do not want to grant us our freedom, we will claim it with our own HANDS AND BLOOD.

Let us show the world once more that a Greek’s neck will not tolerate the yoke. The struggle will be hard; the occupier has the means and the numbers.

However, we have the SOUL, and JUSTICE on our side. And that is why we shall be VICTORIOUS.

GLOBAL ENVOYS,

Take a look at your own actions. It is a disgrace in the 20th century for a nation to have to shed blood to gain its freedom, the holy gift for which we fought on your side and for which you yourselves claim to have fought against Nazism and Fascism.

HELLENES,

Wherever you are, hear our voice:

GO FORTH, ALL UNITED FOR THE LIBERATION OF OUR CYPRUS…..

E.O.K.A.

THE COMMANDER

D I G E N I S

direct translation from the original document released by EOKA

The military campaign officially began on April 1, 1955. On this date EOKA launched simultaneous attacks on the British controlled Cyprus Broadcasting Station in Nicosia (led by Markos Drakos), on the British Army's Wolseley barracks and on targets in Famagusta (led by Grigoris Afxentiou). Thereafter and unlike other anti colonial movements, EOKA confined its acts to sabotaging military installations, ambushing military convoys and patrols, and assassinating British soldiers and local informers. It did not attempt to control any territory, a tactic that according to Grivas would not have suited the terrain and size of Cyprus nor the imbalance of EOKA's conventional military capabilities with respect to the British Army.[10]

Formation and structure

The organisation was headed by George Grivas. Grivas had rich military experience having been educated at the Hellenic Military Academy, having served as an officer in the Greek army and having fought for Greece in both World Wars. In terms of ideology, of particular relevance was his action during the Hellenic Civil War where he led Organisation X, a right wing faction charged with opposing the leftist group ELAS .[11] Grivas(whom believed to be a cia agent with nikos sampson[12][13] ) assumed the nom de guerre Digenis in reference to the Byzantine Digenis Akritas, who repelled invaders from the Byzantine Empire during the Middle Ages.

Second in command was Grigoris Afxentiou who had also served in the Greek army. Afxentiou had graduated from the reserves Officers Academy in 1950 but had no prior experience in active military operations.

Recruitment of members was targeted at the younger population. The conditions for a mass uprising as witnessed in other colonial conflicts did not exist in Cyprus. There were no fundamental economic problems nor was there widespread poverty or food shortage.[14] The working class was largely allied to the left wing party of AKEL which did not openly support an armed struggle. Cyprus' privileged geographical position allowed the middle class to prosper through international trade, activities that were openly encouraged by the British administration. As a result EOKA's leadership directed recruitment to the "passionate youth".[9]

At the peak of the conflict EOKA guerillas numbered 1,250 members (250 regulars plus 1,000 active underground). They faced British security forces totalling 40,000 (32,000 regulars plus 8,000 auxiliaries).[1] It was clandestinely supported by the Greek Government in the form of arms, money and propaganda on radio stations broadcast from Athens. The cost of running the campaign was reported to be only GBP £50,000 (US $140,000) for the whole 4 years.[1]

Targets

British

EOKA's main target as stated both in its initiation oath and its initial declaration of existence was the British military. In total during the campaign EOKA engaged in 1,144 armed clashes with the British Army. About 53% of clashes took place in urban areas, whilst the rest (47%) took place in rural areas.[8]

During the course of the insurrection a total of 105 [15] British servicemen were killed and 51 members of the police.[16]

Aside from British military personnel, EOKA targeted civilians connected to the British armed forces such as their families, British expatriates, colonial and civilian police officers.[17][18]

Greek Cypriots

Greek Cypriots suspected of being allied to the colonial forces and those believed to be informants were targeted, sometimes with severe brutality. Although the number of operations launched against Greek Cypriots were far less than those against the British military, they were much more efficient. In total 230 assassination attempts were attributed to EOKA action. Of these only 13 targets escaped unharmed, whilst 148 Greek Cypriots were killed and 69 were wounded.[8]

Amongst the 148 killings, 23 were of known leftists. After the end of the struggle there has been debate whether EOKA was also used to target individuals on the basis of their political affiliations, in particular if they did not correspond to Grivas' extreme right ideology and or as vehicle for settling personal differences. The communist party of AKEL and EOKA veteran fighters have both been outspoken on this issue.[19][20]

Turkish Cypriots

One of the first actions of Field Marshal Sir John Harding, the newly appointed governor of Cyprus in 1955, was to expand the numbers of auxiliary Cyprus Police. This was achieved by disproportionate recruitment from the Turkish-Cypriot community—an action that went against the advice of experienced colonial officials who knew that over-reliance upon a Turkish police force would alarm the Greek Cypriot population and likely lead to open conflict between the island’s ethnic communities [21] A new separate 'Special Mobile Reserve' unit was created exclusively recruited from the Turkish community.[21] Although EOKA's primary targets were British interests, Cypriots of Turkish descent, especially those serving the colonial security forces soon became targets.[21]

Communal violence, rare in Cyprus before the insurgency, flared up in 1956 and increased throughout EOKA's campaign.[21] In 1957 the Turkish Resistance Organization (TMT) came into existence, a rival paramilitary organisation serving Turkish interests. Although infrequent, EOKA and TMT targeted each others members with ferocity. In the worst period of such violence, in 1958, EOKA killed 55 Turkish Cypriots whilst TMT killed 60 Greeks.[22]

Events

On the 16 June 1956, the bombing of a restaurant by EOKA led to the death of William P. Boteler, a CIA officer working under diplomatic cover. Colonel Grivas immediately issued a statement denying a deliberate attempt to target American citizens. He further warned American officials, for their own safety, to avoid the establishments patronised by "our British enemy."[23]

In October 1956 an EOKA leader, Pilots Christof, was captured during Operation Sparrowhawk. The following year, Grigoris Afxentiou was burned to death in the Battle of Machairas.[10] A number of other Greek fighters were hanged, including the 18-year old, Evagoras Pallikarides.[24]

EOKA's activity continued until December 1959 when a cease-fire was declared which paved the way for the Zürich agreement on the future of the country.

The EOKA aim to rid Cyprus of British rule was partially met when on 16 August 1960 Cyprus achieved independence from the United Kingdom with the exception of two "Sovereign Base Areas" (SBA) at Akrotiri and Dhekelia. The settlement explicitly denied enosis – the union with Greece sought by EOKA. Although Cyprus gained its independence, it came with a complex constitution and the 1960 Treaty of Guarantee – a security arrangement compromising of a three-way guaranteeship from Turkey, Greece and Britain that neither would annexe the independent republic. (see History of Cyprus).

Allegations of torture by the British colonial forces

In 2011, veteran EOKA fighters announced that lawsuits were being planned against British authorities. The veteran's association is claiming that at least 14 Cypriots died and hundreds more could have been tortured during interrogations by the British during the 1955–1959 armed struggle against colonial rule. Two of those who died during interrogation were aged 17. The action comes on the back of the uncovering of secret documents released in 2011 which document similar practices during the Mau Mau Uprising in Kenya, during the same period. [25] [26]

Dissolution and legacy

The EOKA campaign lasted – officially – until 31 March 1959. After independence EOKA fighters formed regional associations such as ΣΑΠΕΛ (Σύνδεσμος Αγωνιστών Πόλεως και Επαρχίας Λεμεσού; Union of Fighters of Limassol and district) that have been participating in commemorations, museum collections etc. In the 90's a dedicated old people's home for ex EOKA fighters was constructed in the village of Palodhia, near Limassol.

A museum dedicated to the EOKA struggle was created in 1960 and is located in the centre of Nicosia.[27]

The guerilla methods of EOKA, and the nature of its struggle, has served as a widely studied example for other anticolonial, national-liberation struggles in the period of decolonisation.[28]

Political perception

 Cyprus: In its official website, the Cyprus government mentions EOKA as an organisation that waged an "armed struggle" against the British.[29]

 Greece: Greek press refers to EOKA as an organisation that mounted a liberation struggle against British Colonial rule. [30]

 Northern Cyprus: The Turkish Republic Of Northern Cyprus (an internationally unrecognised entity), recognises EOKA as a terrorist organisation.[31] [32] [33]

 Turkey: The Republic of Turkey recognises EOKA as a terrorist organisation. [34]

 United Kingdom:Media in the United Kingdom referred to EOKA as a terrorist organisation during the conflict [35] but currently the BBC describes it a 'paramilitary organisation'.[36]

 United States: Press in the United States of America referred to EOKA as a terrorist organisation during the conflict, [37] however current press such as the New York Times refers to the organisation as a 'guerilla movement'.[38]

See also

Notes and references

  1. ^ a b c Kraemer, Joseph S. (Winter, 1971). "Revolutionary Guerrilla Warfare & the Decolonization Movement". Polity. 4 (2): 146. Retrieved 2008-04-26. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help) Cite error: The named reference "Polity" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  2. ^ "EOKA". Britannica. Retrieved 2008-08-11. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  3. ^ "EOKA (Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston)". Retrieved 2008-12-12.
  4. ^ "War and Politics – Cyprus". Retrieved 2008-12-12.
  5. ^ Mallinson, William (2005). Cyprus: a modern history. I.B.Tauris. p. 19. ISBN 978-1850435808. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  6. ^ Durrell, Lawrence (1957). Bitter lemons. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 0-571-06186-9. {{cite book}}: External link in |title= (help)
  7. ^ http://books.google.com.tr/books?id=4dotrHSZLGUC&pg=PA152&lpg=PA152&dq=grivas+cia+agent&source=bl&ots=yO5Eg6m40R&sig=hB5DwUyljfPg7NppFhm7BAuOlIk&hl=tr&ei=3d5BTZb2KMTEswbK7PSgDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=8&ved=0CFoQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q&f=false The Cyprus Conspiracy: America, Espionage and the Turkish Invasion writers: Brendan O'Malley,Ian Craig page 152
  8. ^ a b c Markides, Kyriacos (1974). "Social Change and the Rise and Decline of Social Movements: The Case of Cyprus". American Ethnologist. 1 (2): 309–330. doi:10.1525/ae.1974.1.2.02a00070. Retrieved 2008-08-11. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  9. ^ a b Grivas, George (1964). Guerrilla warfare and EOKA's struggle: a politico-military study. London, G.B.: Longmans. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  10. ^ a b Grivas, George (1964). The Memoirs of General Grivas. London: Longmans. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  11. ^ Ganser, Daniele (July 12, 2005). Nato's Secret Armies: Operation Gladio and Terrorism in Western Europe. Routledge. p. 213. ISBN 978-0714656076. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  12. ^ The Cyprus Conspiracy: America, Espionage and the Turkish Invasion page 152 http://books.google.com.tr/books?id=4dotrHSZLGUC&pg=PA152&lpg=PA152&dq=grivas+cia+agent&source=bl&ots=yO5Eg6m40R&sig=hB5DwUyljfPg7NppFhm7BAuOlIk&hl=tr&ei=3d5BTZb2KMTEswbK7PSgDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=8&ved=0CFoQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q&f=false
  13. ^ http://www.tallarmeniantale.com/cyprus-rape.htm
  14. ^ A good example was the case of Algeria where the uprising was fuelled in part by a poor wheat harvest, shortages of manufactured goods, and severe unemployment. See article: Nationalism and resistance in Algeria
  15. ^ Official statistics, unofficial estimates at around 371 (see Simpson, Alfred William Brian)
  16. ^ Simpson, Alfred William Brian (2001). Human Rights and the End of Empire: Britain and the Genesis of the European Convention. Oxford University Press. p. 893. ISBN 978-0199267897. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  17. ^ Cvilian deaths
  18. ^ The struggle for Cyprus. Charles Foley, W. I. Scobie, Hoover Institution Press, 1975
  19. ^ Hazou, Elias (April 12, 2005). "Christofias comments spark EOKA storm". Cyprus Mail. Retrieved 2008-08-15. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  20. ^ Hadjistylianou, Michalis (2005-04-07). "Οι δύο όψεις της ιστορίας για τους εκτελεσθέντες (The two views on the assassinations)". Simerini (in Greek). Retrieved 2008-08-15. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  21. ^ a b c d S. Corum, James (March 1, 2006). "Training Indigenous Forces in Counterinsurgency: A Tale of Two Insurgencies" (pdf). Strategic Studies Institute. U.S. Army War College. Retrieved 2009-05-03.
  22. ^ Drousiotis, Makarios (2005-04-25). "Our Haunted Country". Politis Newspaper. Retrieved 2009-05-03. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  23. ^ Gup, Ted. Book of Honor: Covert Lives and Classified Deaths at the CIA page 90, New York, Doubleday, 2000. ISBN 0-385-49293-6
  24. ^ Simpson, Alfred William Brian (2001). Human Rights and the End of Empire: Britain and the Genesis of the European Convention. Oxford University Press. p. 876. ISBN 978-0199267897. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  25. ^ Theodoulou, Michael (13 April 2011). "Greek Cypriots intend to sue Britain over torture in 1950s uprising". The Times. Retrieved 2011-05-09.
  26. ^ Dewhurst, Patrick (14 April 2011). "EOKA fighters to sue Brits over torture". Cyprus Mail. Retrieved 2011-05-09.
  27. ^ Leonidou, Leo (June 22, 2006). "The flag that marked the end of colonial rule". Cyprus Mail. Archived from the original on 2007-05-26. Retrieved 2007-04-17. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  28. ^ Dr. Vassos Lyssarides, ANT1 TV "Ο Αγώνας της ΕΟΚΑ 40 χρόνια μετά", 1995 – http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hUfee3rLziM
  29. ^ http://www.cyprus.gov.cy/portal/portal.nsf/0/de020800c01914bbc2257028003fbcbd?OpenDocument&ExpandSection=2%2C-1
  30. ^ "Newsletter Vol 33". Institute for Neohellenic Research. 2008. Retrieved 2011-05-09.
  31. ^ http://www.trncinfo.com/tanitmadairesi/ARSIV2009/ENGLISHarchive/APRIL/060409.HTM
  32. ^ http://www.tcn-cy.freeuk.com/Tcn33.htm
  33. ^ http://www.neu.edu.tr/?q=en/node/632
  34. ^ http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/n.php?n=memorial-honors-british-soldiers-killed-on-cyprus-2009-11-09
  35. ^ "1956: Britain deports Cyprus Archbishop". BBC News. 1956-03-09. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
  36. ^ "Grave robbers steal former Cyprus president's remains". BBC. 11 December 2009. Retrieved 2009-12-11. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  37. ^ "CYPRUS: Blimp Rides Again". Time. 1956-09-03. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
  38. ^ Lewis, Paul (May 11, 2001). "Nikos Sampson, 66, Cyprus President After Coup, Dies". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-01-22. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
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