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{{redirect|Forensics}}
{{Forensic science}}
'''Forensic science''' (often shortened to '''forensics''') is the application of a broad spectrum of [[science]]s to answer questions of interest to a legal system. This may be in relation to a crime or a civil action. The word ''forensic'' comes from the Latin ''forēnsis'', meaning "of or before the forum."<ref>{{ShorterOxfordEnglishDictionary}}</ref> In Roman times, a criminal charge meant presenting the case before a group of public individuals in the forum. Both the person accused of the crime and the accuser would give speeches based on their sides of the story. The individual with the best argument and delivery would determine the outcome of the case. This origin is the source of the two modern usages of the word ''forensic'' – as a form of legal evidence and as a category of public presentation.

In modern use, the term "forensics" in the place of "forensic science" can be considered correct as the term "forensic" is effectively a [[synonym]] for "legal" or "related to courts". However the term is now so closely associated with the scientific field that many dictionaries include the meaning that equates the word "forensics" with "forensic science".

==History==
===Antiquity and the Middle Age===
{{main|Forensics in antiquity}}
The [[Ancient history|ancient world]] lacked standardized forensic practices, which aided criminals in escaping punishment. Criminal investigations and trials relied on forced [[Confession (law)|confession]]s and witness [[testimony]]. However ancient sources contain several accounts of techniques that foreshadow the concepts of forensic science that is developed centuries later, such as the [[Archimedes#Discoveries and inventions|"Eureka" legend]] told of [[Archimedes]] (287–212 BC).<ref>{{cite book|last=Schafer|first=Elizabeth D.|title=Forensic Science|chapter=Ancient science and forensics|editor=Ayn Embar-seddon, Allan D. Pass (eds.)|publisher=[[Salem Press]]|year=2008|page=40|isbn=978-1587654237}}</ref>
The account about Archimedes tells of how he invented a method for determining the volume of an object with an irregular shape. According to [[Vitruvius]], a [[votive crown]] for a temple had been made for King Hiero II, who had supplied the pure [[gold]] to be used, and Archimedes was asked to determine whether some [[silver]] had been substituted by the dishonest goldsmith.<ref>{{cite web|title = ''De Architectura'', Book IX, paragraphs 9–12, text in English and Latin|author= [[Vitruvius]]| publisher = [[University of Chicago]]|url = http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Vitruvius/9*.html|accessdate=2007-08-30}}</ref> Archimedes had to solve the problem without damaging the crown, so he could not melt it down into a regularly shaped body in order to calculate its [[density]].

While taking a bath, he noticed that the level of the water in the tub rose as he got in, and realized that this effect could be used to determine the [[volume]] of the crown. For practical purposes water is incompressible,<ref>{{cite web|title = Incompressibility of Water|publisher =[[Harvard University]]|url = http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~scdiroff/lds/NewtonianMechanics/IncompressibilityofWater/IncompressibilityofWater.html|accessdate=2008-02-27}}</ref> so the submerged crown would displace an amount of water equal to its own volume. By dividing the mass of the crown by the volume of water displaced, the density of the crown could be obtained. This density would be lower than that of gold if cheaper and less dense metals had been added. Archimedes then took to the streets naked, so excited by his discovery that he had forgotten to dress, crying "[[Eureka (word)|Eureka]]!" ([[Greek language|Greek]]: "εὕρηκα!," meaning "I have found it!"). The test was conducted successfully, proving that silver had indeed been mixed in.<ref>{{cite web|title = Buoyancy|author= [[HyperPhysics]]| publisher =[[Georgia State University]]|url = http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/Hbase/pbuoy.html|accessdate=2007-07-23}}</ref>

The first written account of using [[medicine]] and [[entomology]] to solve (separate) criminal cases is attributed to the book of [[Collected Cases of Injustice Rectified|Xi Yuan Lu]] (translated as "Washing Away of Wrongs"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/htdocs/forensics/timeline.html |title=Forensics Timeline |publisher=Cbsnews.com |date= |accessdate=2011-12-20}}</ref><ref>[http://vizproto.prism.asu.edu/classes/sp05/todd_c/forensic_site/intro.html A Brief Background of Forensic Science]</ref>), written in [[Song Dynasty]] China by [[Song Ci]] (宋慈, 1186–1249) in 1248. In one of the accounts, the case of a person murdered with a sickle was solved by a death investigator who instructed everyone to bring his sickle to one location. (He realized it was a sickle by testing various blades on an animal carcass and comparing the wound.) Flies, attracted by the smell of blood, eventually gathered on a single sickle. In light of this, the murderer confessed. The book also offered advice on how to distinguish between a [[drowning]] (water in the [[lungs]]) and [[strangulation]] (broken neck [[cartilage]]), along with other evidence from examining corpses on determining if a death was caused by murder, suicide or an accident.

===Modern history===
In the 16th-century Europe medical practitioners in army and university settings began to gather information on cause and manner of death. [[Ambroise Paré]], a French army [[surgery|surgeon]], systematically studied the effects of violent death on internal organs. Two [[Italian people|Italian]] surgeons, [[Fortunato Fidelis]] and [[Paolo Zacchia]], laid the foundation of modern [[pathology]] by studying changes that occurred in the structure of the body as the result of disease. In the late 18th century, writings on these topics began to appear. These included ''A Treatise on Forensic Medicine and Public Health'' by the French physician [[Fodéré]] and ''The Complete System of Police Medicine'' by the German medical expert [[Johann Peter Franck]].

In 1773 a Swedish chemist [[Carl Wilhelm Scheele]] devised a way of detecting arsenous oxide, simple [[arsenic]], in corpses, although only in large quantities. This investigation was expanded, in 1806, by German chemist [[Valentin Ross]], who learned to detect the poison in the walls of a victim's stomach, and by English chemist [[James Marsh (chemist)|James Marsh]], who used chemical processes to confirm arsenic as the cause of death in an 1836 murder trial.

Two early examples of English forensic science in individual legal proceedings demonstrate the increasing use of [[logic]] and [[Procedure (term)|procedure]] in criminal investigations. In 1784, in [[Lancaster, Lancashire|Lancaster]], John Toms was tried and convicted for murdering Edward Culshaw with a pistol. When the dead body of Culshaw was examined, a pistol wad (crushed paper used to secure powder and balls in the muzzle) found in his head wound matched perfectly with a torn newspaper found in Toms' pocket. In [[Warwick]] in 1816, a farm labourer was tried and convicted of the murder of a young maidservant. She had been drowned in a shallow pool and bore the marks of violent assault. The police found footprints and an impression from corduroy cloth with a sewn patch in the damp earth near the pool. There were also scattered grains of [[wheat]] and chaff. The breeches of a farm labourer who had been threshing wheat nearby were examined and corresponded exactly to the impression in the earth near the pool.<ref>{{cite book
|title=Science Against Crime |author=Kind S, Overman M
|publisher=Doubleday
|location= New York
|year= 1972
|isbn= 0-385-09249-0
|pages= 12–13}}</ref>
Police started using fingerprints for evidence when [[Juan Vucetich]] solved a murder case in Argentina by cutting off a piece of door with a bloody fingerprint on it.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.easybuenosairescity.com/biografias/vucetich1.htm |title=Juan Vucetich |publisher=Easybuenosairescity.com |date=1925-01-25 |accessdate=2010-06-08}}</ref> Later in the 20th century several British pathologists, [[Bernard Spilsbury]], [[Francis Camps]], [[Sydney Smith (forensic expert)|Sydney Smith]] and [[Keith Simpson (professor)|Keith Simpson]] pioneered new forensic science methods in Britain. In 1909 Rodolphe Archibald Reiss founded the first school of forensic science in the world: the "Institut de police scientifique" at the [[University of Lausanne|University of Lausanne (UNIL)]].

Forensic science has been fostered by a number of national forensic science learned bodies including the [[American Academy of Forensic Sciences]] (founded 1948; publishers of the ''[http://www.aafs.org/journal-forensic-sciences Journal of Forensic Sciences]''), the [[Canadian Society of Forensic Science]] (founded 1953; publishers of the ''[[Journal of the Canadian Society of Forensic Science]]''), [http://www.bafs.org.uk/cgi-bin/dispatch.cgi/ The British Academy of Forensic Sciences] (founded 1960; publishers of [http://www.bafs.org.uk/cgi-bin/dispatch.cgi/journal ''Medicine,science and the law''] (journal)), and the [[Australian Academy of Forensic Sciences]] (founded 1967; publishers of the ''[http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/titles/00450618.asp Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences]'').

A [[history of forensic photography]] can be viewed here.

== Subdivisions ==
[[Image:US Army CID agents at crime scene.jpg|thumb|Agents of the [[United States Army Criminal Investigation Division]] investigate a crime scene]]
[[Image:England-forensic2.jpg|thumb|Police forensic investigation in [[Ashton under Lyne]] ([[Greater Manchester]], [[England]]), using a [[tent]] to protect the crime scene]]
<!-- Sorted alphabetically. -->
* [[Computational forensics]] concerns the development of algorithms and software to assist forensic examination.
* [[Crime lab|Criminalistics]] is the application of various sciences to answer questions relating to examination and comparison of [[forensic genetics|biological evidence]], [[trace evidence]], impression evidence (such as [[fingerprint]]s, [[Forensic footwear evidence|footwear impressions]], and [[Forensic tire tread evidence|tire tracks]]), [[controlled substance]]s, [[ballistics]], firearm and toolmark examination, and other evidence in criminal investigations. In typical circumstances evidence is processed in a [[Crime lab]].
* [[Digital forensics]] is the application of proven scientific methods and techniques in order to recover data from electronic / digital media. Digital Forensic specialists work in the field as well as in the lab.
* [[Forensic accounting]] is the study and interpretation of accounting evidence
* [[Forensic aerial photography]] is the study and interpretation of aerial photographic evidence
* [[Forensic anthropology]] is the application of [[physical anthropology]] in a legal setting, usually for the recovery and identification of [[skeletonization (forensics)|skeletonized]] human remains.
* [[Forensic archaeology]] is the application of a combination of [[archaeological]] techniques and forensic science, typically in law enforcement.
* [[Forensic astronomy]] uses methods from [[astronomy]] to determine past celestial constellations for forensic purposes.
* [[Forensic botany]] is the study of plant life in order to gain information regarding possible crimes.
* [[Forensic chemistry]] is the study of detection and identification of illicit drugs, accelerants used in arson cases, explosive and [[gunshot residue]].
* [[Fingerprint|Forensic dactyloscopy]] is the study of fingerprints.
* Forensic document examination or [[questioned document examination]] answers questions about a disputed document using a variety of scientific processes and methods. Many examinations involve a comparison of the questioned document, or components of the document, with a set of known standards. The most common type of examination involves handwriting, whereby the examiner tries to address concerns about potential authorship.
* [[Genetic fingerprinting|Forensic DNA analysis]] takes advantage of the uniqueness of an individual's DNA to answer forensic questions such as [[Parental testing|paternity/maternity testing]] and placing a suspect at a crime scene, e.g. in a [[rape investigation]].
* [[Forensic engineering]] is the scientific examination and analysis of structures and products relating to their failure or cause of damage.
* [[Forensic entomology]] deals with the examination of insects in, on and around human remains to assist in determination of time or location of death. It is also possible to determine if the body was moved after death.
* [[Forensic geology]] deals with trace evidence in the form of soils, minerals and petroleum.
* [[Forensic geophysics]] is the application of geophysical techniques such as radar for detecting objects hidden underground or underwater.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.physics.org/featuredetail.asp?id=59 |title=CSI: Geophysics |publisher=Physics.org |date= |accessdate=2011-12-20}}</ref>
* [[Forensic intelligence]] process starts with the collection of data and ends with the integration of results within into the analysis of crimes under investigation<ref>p.611 Jahankhani,Hamid; Watson, David Lilburn; Me, Gianluigi ''Handbook of Electronic Security and Digital Forensics'' World Scientific, 2009</ref>
* [[Forensic Interviews]] are conducted using the science of professionally using expertise to conduct a variety of investigative interviews with victims, witnesses, suspects or other sources to determine the facts regarding suspicions, allegations or specific incidents in either public or private sector settings.
* [[Forensic limnology]] is the analysis of evidence collected from crime scenes in or around fresh-water sources. Examination of biological organisms, in particular [[diatom]]s, can be useful in connecting suspects with victims.
* [[Forensic linguistics]] deals with issues in the legal system that requires linguistic expertise.
* [[Forensic meteorology]] is a site-specific analysis of past weather conditions for a point of loss.
* [[Forensic odontology]] is the study of the uniqueness of dentition, better known as the study of teeth.
* [[Forensic optometry]] is the study of glasses and other eye wear relating to crime scenes and criminal investigations
* [[Forensic pathology]] is a field in which the principles of [[medicine]] and [[pathology]] are applied to determine a cause of death or injury in the context of a legal inquiry.
* [[Forensic podiatry]] is an application of the study of feet [[footprint]] or footwear and their traces to analyze scene of crime and to establish personal identity in forensic examinations.
* [[Forensic psychiatry]] is a specialised branch of psychiatry as applied to and based on scientific criminology.
* [[Forensic psychology]] is the study of the mind of an individual, using forensic methods. Usually it determines the circumstances behind a criminal's behavior.
* [[Forensic seismology]] is the study of techniques to distinguish the seismic signals generated by underground nuclear explosions from those generated by earthquakes.
* [[Forensic serology]] is the study of the body fluids.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forensic-medecine.info/forensic-serology.html |title=Forensic serology |publisher=Forensic-medecine.info |date= |accessdate=2010-06-08}}</ref>
* [[Forensic toxicology]] is the study of the effect of [[Hard and soft drugs|drugs]] and [[poison]]s on/in the human body.
* [[Forensic video analysis]] is the scientific examination, comparison and evaluation of video in legal matters.
* [[Mobile device forensics]] is the scientific examination and evaluation of evidence found in mobile phones, e.g. Call History and Deleted SMS, and includes SIM Card Forensics
* [[Trace evidence]] analysis is the analysis and comparison of trace evidence including glass, paint, fibres and hair.
* [[Wildlife Forensic Science]] applies a range of scientific disciplines to legal cases involving non-human biological evidence, to solve crimes such as poaching, animal abuse, and trade in endangered species.

== Notable forensic scientists ==
<!-- Evidence of notability required, such as a Wikipedia article. -->
*[[Michael Baden]] (1934 – )
*[[William M. Bass]]
*[[Joseph Bell]] (1837–1911)
*[[Alphonse Bertillon]] (1853-1914)
*[[Sara C. Bisel]] (1932–1996)
*[[Ellis R. Kerley]] (1924–1998)
*[[Paul L. Kirk]] (1902–1970)
*[[Clea Koff]] (1972 – )
*[[Wilton M. Krogman]] (1903–1987)
*[[Alexandre Lacassagne]] (1843-1924)
*[[Henry C. Lee]] (1938 – )
*[[Edmond Locard]] (1877–1966)
*[[William R. Maples]] (1937–1997)
*[[Albert S. Osborn]] (1858–1946)
*[[Skip Palenik]] (1946 - )
*[[Francis Camps]] (1905–1972)
*[[Keith Simpson (professor)|Keith Simpson]] (1907–1985)
*[[Clyde Snow]] (1928 – )
*[[Bernard Spilsbury]] (1877–1947)
*[[Auguste Ambroise Tardieu]] (1818–1879)
*[[Paul Uhlenhuth]] (1870–1957)
*[[Cyril Wecht]] (1931 – )

== Questionable techniques ==
Some forensic techniques, believed to be scientifically sound at the time they were used, have turned out later to have much less scientific merit or none.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=Annual Review of Law and Social Science |volume=4 |pages=149–171 |doi=10.1146/annurev.lawsocsci.4.110707.172303 |first1=Michael J. |last1=Saks |first2=David L. |last2=Faigman |year=2008 |title= Failed forensics: how forensic science lost its way and how it might yet find it}}</ref> Some such techniques include:
* [[Comparative bullet-lead analysis]] was used by the FBI for over four decades, starting with the [[John F. Kennedy assassination]] in 1963. The theory was that each batch of [[ammunition]] possessed a chemical makeup so distinct that a bullet could be traced back to a particular batch or even a specific box. Internal studies and an outside study by the [[United States National Academy of Sciences|National Academy of Sciences]] found that the technique was unreliable, and the FBI abandoned the test in 2005.<ref>{{cite news
|url= http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/11/17/AR2007111701681.html
|title= FBI's Forensic Test Full of Holes
|first= John
|last= Solomon
|work= [[The Washington Post]]
|page= A1
|date= 2007-11-18
|accessdate= 2008-03-05
}}</ref>
* [[Forensic dentistry]] has come under fire: in at least two cases bite-mark evidence has been used to convict people of murder who were later freed by DNA evidence. A 1999 study by a member of the American Board of Forensic Odontology found a 63 percent rate of false identifications and is commonly referenced within online news stories and conspiracy websites.<ref>{{cite news
|url= http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/28/weekinreview/28santos.html
|title= Evidence From Bite Marks, It Turns Out, Is Not So Elementary
|first= Fernanda
|last= Santos
|work= [[The New York Times]]
|date= 2007-01-28
|accessdate= 2008-03-05
}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
|url= http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/specials/chi-0411290148nov29,1,2796064.story
|title= Bite-mark verdict faces new scrutiny
|first= Flynn
|last= McRoberts
|work= [[Chicago Tribune]]
|date= 2004-11-29
|accessdate= 2008-03-05
}}</ref> The study was based on an informal workshop during an ABFO meeting, which many members did not consider a valid scientific setting.<ref>{{cite news
|url= http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/specials/chi-041019forensics,0,4915311.story?page=6
|title= From the start, a faulty science
|first= Flynn
|last= McRoberts
|work= [[Chicago Tribune]]
|date= 2004-10-19
|accessdate= 2008-07-13
}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>

== Litigation science ==
'''Litigation science''' describes analysis or data developed or produced ''expressly'' for use in a trial versus those produced in the course of independent research. This distinction was made by the US 9th Circuit Court of Appeals when evaluating the admissibility of experts.<ref>{{cite news
|url= http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20080119/bob10.asp
|title= Judging Science
|work= [[Science News]]
|first= Janet
|last= Raloff
|pages= 42 (Vol. 173, No. 3)
|date= 2008-01-19
|accessdate= 2008-03-05
|archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080228014925/http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20080119/bob10.asp <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = 2008-02-28}}</ref>

This uses [[demonstrative evidence]], which is evidence created in preparation of trial by [[Lawyer|attorneys]] or [[paralegal]]s.

== Examples in popular culture ==
[[Sherlock Holmes]], the fictional character created by [[Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]] in works produced from 1887 to 1915, used forensic science as one of his investigating methods. Conan Doyle credited the inspiration for Holmes on his teacher at the medical school of the [[University of Edinburgh]], the gifted surgeon and forensic detective [[Joseph Bell]].
[[Agatha Christie's]] [[Hercule Poirot]] and [[Miss Marple]] books and television series were also a big hit worldwide.

Decades later the [[comic strip]] ''[[Dick Tracy]]'' also featured a detective using a considerable number of forensic methods, although sometimes the methods were more fanciful than actually possible.

[[Flash (Barry Allen)|Barry Allen]] ([[alter ego]] of The Flash) is a forensic scientist for the Central City police department.

Defence attorney [[Perry Mason]] occasionally used forensic techniques, both in the novels and television series.

One of the earliest [[television program|television series]] to focus on the scientific analysis of evidence was ''[[Quincy, M.E.]]'' (1976–83, and based loosely on an even earlier Canadian series titled ''[[Wojeck]]''), with the title character, a [[medical examiner]] working in [[Los Angeles]] solving crimes through careful study. The opening theme of each episode featured a clip of the title character, played by [[Jack Klugman]], beginning a lecture to a group of police officers with "Gentlemen, you are about to enter the fascinating sphere of police work, the world of forensic medicine." Later series with similar premises include ''[[Dexter (TV series)|Dexter]]'', ''[[The Mentalist]]'', ''[[CSI: Crime Scene Investigation|CSI]]'', ''[[Cold Case (TV series)|Cold Case]]'', ''[[Bones (TV series)|Bones]]'', ''[[Law & Order]]'', ''[[Body of Proof]]'', ''[[NCIS (TV series)|NCIS]]'', ''[[Criminal Minds]]'', ''[[Silent Witness]]'', ''[[Case Closed]]'', ''[[Monk (TV series)|Monk]]'', ''[[Midsomer Murders]]'' and ''[[Waking the Dead (TV series)|Waking the Dead]]'', depict glamorized versions of the activities of 21st-century forensic scientists. Some claim these TV shows have changed individuals' expectations of forensic science, an influence termed the "[[CSI effect]]".<ref>{{Cite journal
| last = Holmgren
| first = Janne A.
| last2 = Fordham
| first2 = Judith
| title = The CSI Effect and the Canadian and the Australian Jury
| journal = Journal of Forensic Sciences
| volume = 56
| issue = S1
| pages = S63–S71
| year = 2011
| month = January
| doi = 10.1111/j.1556-4029.2010.01621.x
| postscript = <!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}
}}</ref>

Non-fiction TV shows such as ''[[Forensic Files]]'', ''[[The New Detectives]]'', ''[[American Justice]]'', and [[Dayle Hinman]]'s ''[[Body of Evidence]]'' have also popularized forensic science.

The [[Ace Attorney]] series features forensic science, mainly in ''[[Apollo Justice: Ace Attorney]]'' and the DS-only game in ''[[Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney]]''.

==Controversies==
Questions about forensic science, fingerprint evidence and the assumption behind these disciplines have been brought to light in some publications,<ref>{{cite web| date=February 18, 2009 |title='Badly Fragmented' Forensic Science System Needs Overhaul| publisher=The National Academies| url=http://www8.nationalacademies.org/onpinews/newsitem.aspx?RecordID=12589| accessdate=2009-03-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| date=February 18, 2009| title=National Academy of Sciences Finds 'Serious Deficiencies' in Nation's Crime Labs| publisher=National Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers| url=http://www.nacdl.org/public.nsf/newsreleases/2009mn06?OpenDocument| accessdate=2009-03-07}}</ref> the latest being an article in the ''New York Post''.<ref name="ForensicChallenge">{{cite web| date=Sunday, March 6, 2009|title=CSI: Without a clue; A new report forces Police and Judges to rethink forensic science| author=Katherine Ramsland| publisher=[[The New York Post]], PostScript| url=http://www.nypost.com/seven/03072009/postopinion/opedcolumnists/csi__without_a_clue_158464.htm| accessdate=2009-03-07}}</ref> The article stated that "No one has proved even the basic assumption: That everyone's fingerprint is unique."<ref name="ForensicChallenge" /> The article also stated that "Now such assumptions are being questioned - and with it may come a radical change in how forensic science is used by police departments and prosecutors."<ref name="ForensicChallenge" />

On 25 June 2009 the Supreme Court issued a 5-to-4 decision in [[Melendez-Diaz v. Massachusetts]] stating that crime laboratory reports may not be used against criminal defendants at trial unless the analysts responsible for creating them give testimony and subject themselves to cross-examination. The Supreme Court cited the National Academies report ''Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=12589 |title=Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States: A Path Forward |publisher=Nap.edu |date= |accessdate=2010-06-08}}</ref> in their decision. Writing for the majority, Justice Antonin Scalia referred to the National Research Council report in his assertion that "Forensic evidence is not uniquely immune from the risk of manipulation."

== See also ==
{{columns-list|2|
* [[American Academy of Forensic Sciences]]
* [[Association of Firearm and Tool Mark Examiners]]
* [[Australian Academy of Forensic Sciences]]
* [[Ballistic fingerprinting]]
* [[Bloodstain pattern analysis]]
* [[Canadian Identification Society]]
* [[Computer forensics]]
* [[Crime]]
* [[Computational forensics]]
* [[Diplomatics]] (Forensic paleography)
* [[Footprints]]
* [[Forensic accounting]]
* [[Forensic animation]]
* [[Forensic anthropology]]
* [[Forensic biology]]
* [[Forensic chemistry]]
* [[Forensic economics]]
* [[Forensic engineering]]
* [[Forensic entomology]]
* [[Forensic facial reconstruction]]
* [[Forensic identification]]
* [[Forensic interviewers]]
* [[Forensic linguistics]]
* [[Forensic materials engineering]]
* [[Forensic photography]]
* [[Forensic polymer engineering]]
* [[Forensic profiling]]
* [[Forensic psychiatry]]
* [[Forensic psychology]]
* [[Forensic seismology]]
* [[Forensic video analysis]]
* [[Questioned document examination]]
* [[Retrospective diagnosis]]
* [[RSID]]
* [[Scenes of Crime Officer]]
* [[Sherlock Holmes]]
* [[Skid mark]]
* [[Trace evidence]]
* [[Profiling practices]]
* [[Wildlife Forensic Science]]
}}

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== Further reading ==
* [http://www.anilaggrawal.com/ij/indexpapers.html Anil Aggrawal's Internet Journal of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology].
* ''Crime Science: Methods of Forensic Detection'' by Joe Nickell and John F. Fischer. [[University Press of Kentucky]], 1999. ISBN 0-8131-2091-8.
* ''Dead Reckoning: The New Science of Catching Killers'' by Michael Baden, M.D, former New York City Medical Examiner, and Marion Roach. Simon & Schuster, 2001. ISBN 0-684-86758-3.
* [[Forensic Magazine]] - [http://www.forensicmag.com Forensicmag.com].
* ''Forensic Materials Engineering: Case Studies'' by Peter Rhys Lewis, Colin Gagg, Ken Reynolds. [[CRC Press]], 2004.
* [http://www.fbi.gov/hq/lab/fsc/current/index.htm Forensic Science Communications], an open access journal of the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]].
* [http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/505512/description#description Forensic sciences international] - An international journal dedicated to the applications of medicine and science in the administration of justice - ISSN: 0379-0738 - [[Elsevier]]
* [http://lu.com/showbook.cfm?isbn=9781591582212 ''Guide to Information Sources in the Forensic Sciences''] by Cynthia Holt. Libraries Unlimited, 2006. ISBN 1-59158-221-0.
* [http://www.igi-global.com/journals/details.asp?ID=7828&v=callForPapers ''International Journal of Digital Crime and Forensics (IJDCF)'']
* Owen, D. (2000) ''Hidden Evidence; The Story of Forensic Science and how it Helped to Solve 40 of the World's Toughest Crimes'' Quintet Publishing, London. ISBN 1-86155-278-5.
* Quinche, Nicolas, ''Crime, Science et Identité. Anthologie des textes fondateurs de la criminalistique européenne (1860–1930)''. Genève: Slatkine, 2006, 368p.
* Quinche, Nicolas, « Les victimes, les mobiles et le modus operandi du criminaliste suisse R.-A. Reiss. Enquête sur les stratégies discursives d’un expert du crime (1906-1922)" in ''Revue Suisse d’Histoire'', 58, no 4, décembre 2008, pp.&nbsp;426–444.
* Quinche, Nicolas, « L’ascension du criminaliste Rodolphe Archibald Reiss », in ''Le théâtre du crime : Rodolphe A. Reiss (1875–1929)''. Lausanne : Presses polytechniques et universitaires romandes, 2009, pp.&nbsp;231–250.
* Quinche, Nicolas, « Sur les traces du crime : la naissance de la police scientifique et technique en Europe », in ''Revue internationale de criminologie et de police technique et scientifique'', vol. LXII, no 2, juin 2009, pp.&nbsp;8–10.
* Quinche, Nicolas, and Margot, Pierre, « Coulier, Paul-Jean (1824-1890) : A precursor in the history of fingermark detection and their potential use for identifying their source (1863) », in ''Journal of forensic identification'' (Californie), 60 (2), March–April 2010, pp.&nbsp;129–134.
* Quinche, Nicolas, "Sur les traces du crime : de la naissance du regard indicial à l’institutionnalisation de la police scientifique et technique en Suisse et en France. L’essor de l’Institut de police scientifique de l’Université de Lausanne". Genève : Slatkine, 2011, 686p., (Coll. Travaux des Universités suisses), (Thèse de doctorat de l’Université de Lausanne).
* ''Science Against Crime'' by Stuart Kind and Michael Overman. Doubleday, 1972. ISBN 0-385-09249-0.
* {{cite journal |author=Stanton G |title=Underwater Crime Scene Investigations (UCSI), a New Paradigm |journal=In: SF Norton (ed). Diving for Science... 2003. |volume=Proceedings of the American Academy of Underwater Sciences |issue=22nd annual Scientific Diving Symposium |year=2003 |url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/4762 |accessdate=2008-06-18 }}
* [http://www.struers.com/default.asp?doc_id=404 Structure Magazine no. 40, "RepliSet: High Resolution Impressions of the Teeth of Human Ancestors"] by Debbie Guatelli-Steinberg, Assistant Professor of Biological Anthropology, The Ohio State University and John C. Mitchell, Assistant Professor of Biomaterials and Biomechanics School of Dentistry, Oregon Health and Science University.
* [http://www.ispub.com/ostia/index.php?xmlFilePath=journals/ijba/front.xml The Internet Journal of Biological Anthropology].
* [http://ca.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-0470018267,descCd-description.html ''Wiley Encyclopedia of Forensic Science''] by Allan Jamieson and Andre Moenssens (eds). John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2009. ISBN 978-0-470-01826-2.
* [http://mrw.interscience.wiley.com/emrw/9780470061589/home/ ''Wiley Encyclopedia of Forensic Science''] The online version of the Wiley Encyclopedia of Forensic Science by Allan Jamieson and Andre Moenssens (eds)

==External links==
<!-- ATTENTION! Please do not add links without discussion and consensus on the talk page. Undiscussed links will be removed. -->
{{commons category|Forensic science}}
* [http://www.ispub.com/ostia/index.php?xmlFilePath=journals/ijfs/vol2n1/forensic.xml Forensic Anthropometry]
*{{dmoz|Science/Science_in_Society/Forensic_Science/|Forensic Science}}
* [http://www.ksg.harvard.edu/netgov/html/research_dna_cj_labs.htm List of Forensic Labs in the US]

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Forensic Science}}
[[Category:Forensics|*]]
[[Category:Heuristics]]
[[Category:Criminology]]
[[Category:Applied sciences]]

[[ca:Ciències forenses]]
[[cs:Forenzní vědy]]
[[de:Forensik]]
[[he:זיהוי פלילי]]
[[hi:न्यायिक विज्ञान]]
[[it:Scienza forense]]
[[ja:法科学]]
[[lb:Kriminalistik]]
[[kk:Криминалистика]]
[[ko:법의학]]
[[mr:न्यायसहायक विज्ञान]]
[[nl:Forensisch onderzoek]]
[[pt:Ciência forense]]
[[ru:Криминалистика]]
[[simple:Forensic science]]
[[sh:Forenzika]]
[[sl:Forenzika]]
[[sq:Shkencat ligjore]]
[[tr:Adli tıp]]
[[uk:Судова медицина]]
[[ur:فقہ الطب]]
[[zh:司法科学]]

Revision as of 14:40, 13 March 2012

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