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The court's finding of Constitutionality for the phrase, as well as the justifications noted above, have made it more difficult for US separationists to challenge other constitutionally questionable practices, such as tax exemption of churches, legislative and military chaplaincies, national holidays based on religious commemorations, the "Pray for Peace" postmark, and, in classrooms, required singing of the fourth stanza of ''America'' and the ''Star-Spangled Banner'', both of which include religious phrases, and the required recitation at government events of the US Pledge of Allegiance, modified by an Act of Congress of June 14, 1954, to include the words "under God", especially since each of these instances are regularly used by accommodationists to justify the other instances. [[Atheism#United States 2|Atheists]] object to sworn judiciaries employing historical context in what they believe ought to be a raw textual interpretation.<ref>[http://www.sullivan-county.com/news/mine/atheist_prot.htm Atheist protests `In God We Trust' posting]</ref><ref>[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/n/a/2006/06/12/state/n153942D73.DTL Judge turns down atheist's suit challenging 'In God We Trust']</ref>
The court's finding of Constitutionality for the phrase, as well as the justifications noted above, have made it more difficult for US separationists to challenge other constitutionally questionable practices, such as tax exemption of churches, legislative and military chaplaincies, national holidays based on religious commemorations, the "Pray for Peace" postmark, and, in classrooms, required singing of the fourth stanza of ''America'' and the ''Star-Spangled Banner'', both of which include religious phrases, and the required recitation at government events of the US Pledge of Allegiance, modified by an Act of Congress of June 14, 1954, to include the words "under God", especially since each of these instances are regularly used by accommodationists to justify the other instances. [[Atheism#United States 2|Atheists]] object to sworn judiciaries employing historical context in what they believe ought to be a raw textual interpretation.<ref>[http://www.sullivan-county.com/news/mine/atheist_prot.htm Atheist protests `In God We Trust' posting]</ref><ref>[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/n/a/2006/06/12/state/n153942D73.DTL Judge turns down atheist's suit challenging 'In God We Trust']</ref>

Outside of constitutional objections, President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] took issue with placing the motto on coinage as he considered it [[Sacrilege|sacrilegious]] to put the name of God on money.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9406E2D8103EE033A25757C1A9679D946697D6CF|title=ROOSEVELT DROPPED 'IN GOD WE TRUST'; President Says Such a Motto on Coin Is Irreverence, Close to Sacrilege. NO LAW COMMANDS ITS USE He Trusts Congress Will Not Direct Him to Replace the Exalted Phrase That Invited Constant Levity|date=November 14, 1907|publisher=The New York Times|accessdate=26 August 2010}}</ref>


==In popular culture==
==In popular culture==

Revision as of 00:33, 20 September 2012

For other uses, see In God We Trust (disambiguation).
"In God we trust" on the back of a U.S. Twenty Dollar Bill.

"In God we trust" was adopted as the official motto of the United States in 1956 as an alternative or replacement to the unofficial motto of E pluribus unum, adopted when the Great Seal of the United States was created and adopted in 1782.[1][2]

In God we trust has appeared on U.S. coins since 1864[3] and on paper currency since 1957.[4] Some secularists object to usage of the reference.[5]

It is also the motto of the U.S. state of Florida. Its Spanish equivalent, En Dios Confiamos, is the motto of the Republic of Nicaragua.[6]

History

The phrase appears to have originated in the Star-Spangled Banner, written during the War of 1812. The fourth stanza includes the phrase, "And this be our motto: 'In God is our Trust.'"

'The Star-Spangled Banner, which includes the phrase "And this be our motto: In God is our Trust" in the fourth stanza.

Aspirations for the motto arose surrounding the turmoil and heightened religious sentiment that existed during the Civil War. The Reverend M. R. Watkinson, as part of a campaign initiated by eleven northern Protestant Christian denominations in a letter dated November 13, 1861, petitioned the Treasury Department to add a statement recognising "Almighty God in some form in our coins."[7] At least part of the motivation was to declare that God was on the Union side of the Civil War.[8] According to Brian Burrell, the actual wording of the motto was inspired by a Union Civil War unit's company motto.[9][10]

Treasury Secretary Salmon P. Chase acted on this proposal and directed the then-Philadelphia Director of the Mint, James Pollock, to begin drawing up possible designs that would include the religious phrase. Chase chose his favorite designs and presented a proposal to Congress for the new designs in late 1863.[11]

As Chase was preparing his recommendation to Congress, it was found that the Act of Congress dated January 18, 1837, prescribed the mottoes and devices that should be placed upon the coins of the United States. This meant that the mint could make no changes without the enactment of additional legislation by the Congress. Such legislation was introduced and passed on April 22, 1864, allowing the Secretary of the Treasury to authorize the inclusion of the phrase on one-cent and two-cent coins.[12]

Another Act of Congress passed on March 3, 1865. It allowed the Mint Director, with the Secretary's approval, to place the motto on all gold and silver coins that "shall admit the inscription thereon." [13][14] In 1873, Congress passed the Coinage Act, granting that the Secretary of the Treasury "may cause the motto IN GOD WE TRUST to be inscribed on such coins as shall admit of such motto."

The use of In God we trust has not been uninterrupted. The motto disappeared from the five-cent coin in 1883, and did not reappear until production of the Jefferson nickel began in 1938.[12] In 1908, Congress made it mandatory that the phrase be printed on all coins upon which it had previously appeared. The motto has been in continuous use on the one-cent coin since 1909, and on the ten-cent coin since 1916. It also has appeared on all gold coins and silver dollar coins, half-dollar coins, and quarter-dollar coins struck since July 1, 1908.[12] Since 1938, all US coins have borne the motto.

A quarter dollar with the United States' official motto "In God we trust" on the obverse side

In 1956, the nation was going through the height of the Cold War. As a result, the 84th Congress passed a joint resolution to replace the existing motto with "In God we trust". The change was partly motivated by a desire to differentiate between communism, which promotes atheism, and Western capitalistic democracies, which were at least nominally Christian.[15] The law was signed by President Eisenhower on July 30, 1956, and the motto was progressively added to paper money over a period from 1957 to 1966.[13] (Public Law 84-851)[16] The United States Code at 36 U.S.C. § 302, now states: "'In God we trust' is the national motto."

In 2006, on the 50th anniversary of its adoption, the Senate reaffirmed "In God we trust" as the official national motto of the United States of America.[17] In 2011 the House of Representatives passed an additional resolution reaffirming "In God we trust" as the official motto of the United States, in a 396-9 vote.[18][19] According to a 2003 joint poll by USA Today, CNN, and Gallup, 90% of Americans support the inscription "In God We Trust" on U.S. coins.[20]

The phrase has been incorporated in many hymns and religio-patriotic songs. During the American Civil War, the 125th Pennsylvania Infantry for the Union Army assumed the motto "In God we trust" in early August 1862.[21][22]

Feisal Abdul Rauf, a Muslim imam writes that the phrase “In God we trust” resonates with Islamic teaching, offering two verses from the Qur’an: "Our Lord, we have indeed heard a Crier calling to faith, saying 'Trust in your Lord, so we have trusted..." (Quran 3:193) or "[The messenger and the believers] trust in God, in His Angels, His Scriptures, His Books and His Messengers..." (Quran 2:285).[23] Similarly, Melkote Ramaswamy, an Hindu American scholar, writes that the presence of the phrase “In God we trust” on American currency is a reminder that “there is God everywhere, whether we are conscious or not.” [24]

Controversy

Many have questioned the legality of this motto because they state that it violates United States Constitution which forbids the government from passing any law respecting the establishment of a religion.[25] Religious accommodationists, on the other hand, state that this entrenched practice has not historically presented any constitutional difficulty, is not coercive, and does not prefer one religious sect over another.[25]

Some individuals have been known to mark out the motto on American currency with a custom-made stamp.[26]

Critics contend that the motto's placement on money constitutes a "law respecting an establishment of religion" by the government, thus violating the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment and the Separation of church and state. The In God we trust motto promotes monotheistic religion at the expense of polytheistic, animistic, pantheistic, non-theistic, and secular worldviews. They have pointed out that the phrase originates from religious texts such as the Bible and has always been promoted most strongly by religious leaders and in religious contexts. Critics have further argued that it promotes the belief in a single, transcendent deity; while this is a belief that is followed by the main Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam, it is foreign to the beliefs of many other religions. For instance, Buddhists do not believe in a personal deity; Zoroastrians believe in Ahura Mazda and his nemesis Angra Mainyu, as well as "lesser gods,"[27] many Wiccans believe in two deities; while Hindus, Asatruar, Hellenists, and Celtic Reconstructionists believe in many. Additionally, the phrase is meaningless to agnostics and atheists; as such, the religious motto has been claimed to violate the principle of separation of church and state. However, the use of the phrase as the national motto has been challenged by three lawsuits and has repeatedly been found to be constitutional.[15]

The motto was first challenged in Aronow v. United States in 1970, but the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit ruled: "It is quite obvious that the national motto and the slogan on coinage and currency 'In God We Trust' has nothing whatsoever to do with the establishment of religion. Its use is of patriotic or ceremonial character and bears no true resemblance to a governmental sponsorship of a religious exercise."[28] The decision was cited in Elk Grove Unified School District v. Newdow, a 2004 case on the Pledge of Allegiance. These acts of "ceremonial deism" are "protected from Establishment Clause scrutiny chiefly because they have lost through rote repetition any significant religious content."[29] In Zorach v. Clauson (1952), the Supreme Court also held that the nation's "institutions presuppose a Supreme Being" and that government recognition of God does not constitute the establishment of a state church as the Constitution's authors intended to prohibit.[30]

Despite the court's finding that the phrase is essentially non-religious or religiously meaningless, most Americans do recognize the phrase to be religious. A 1994 survey conducted by the Freedom From Religion Foundation found that "In God We Trust" was regarded as religious by an overwhelming percentage of U.S. citizens.[15]

The court's finding of Constitutionality for the phrase, as well as the justifications noted above, have made it more difficult for US separationists to challenge other constitutionally questionable practices, such as tax exemption of churches, legislative and military chaplaincies, national holidays based on religious commemorations, the "Pray for Peace" postmark, and, in classrooms, required singing of the fourth stanza of America and the Star-Spangled Banner, both of which include religious phrases, and the required recitation at government events of the US Pledge of Allegiance, modified by an Act of Congress of June 14, 1954, to include the words "under God", especially since each of these instances are regularly used by accommodationists to justify the other instances. Atheists object to sworn judiciaries employing historical context in what they believe ought to be a raw textual interpretation.[31][32]

License plates

Many US States now offer "In God We Trust" stickers for purchase to place on their license plates.[34][35][36]

See also

Notes and references

  1. ^ Annual report - American Civil Liberties Union, Volume 5. American Civil Liberties Union. 1951. Retrieved 1 May 2012. In 1956, an official national motto was adopted, "In God We Trust," replacing the unofficial "E Pluribus Unum."
  2. ^ Refiguring Mass Communication: A History. University of Illinois Press. 24 March 2010. Retrieved 1 May 2012. He held high the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, and the nation's unofficial motto, e pluribus unum, even as he was recoiling from the party system in which he had long participated.
  3. ^ U.S. Department of the Treasury. (2011) "History of 'In God We Trust'" www.treasury.gov. Last accessed 02-19-2012.
  4. ^ U.S. Department of the Treasury. (2011) "History of 'In God We Trust'" www.treasury.gov. Last accessed 11-6-2011.
  5. ^ Atheist in battle to remove 'In God We Trust' from US currency retrieved 14 August 2012
  6. ^ As shown on the Córdoba (bank notes and coins); see for example Banco Central de Nicaragua
  7. ^ United States (1897). Congressional Serial Set. US: Government Printing Office, p. 260.
  8. ^ History of "In God We Trust", US Treasury
  9. ^ Brian Burrell, The Words We Live By (NY: Free Press, 1997), 190. Interview on C-Span "Booknotes"
  10. ^ WTAJ, State College, News Report, "Origin of the National Motto."
  11. ^ Duncan, Ann W. (2008). Religion, Rhetoric, and Ritual in the U.S. Government," Church-state Issues in America Today. Westport CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, pp. 77.
  12. ^ a b c " History of "In God We Trust", US Treasury
  13. ^ a b "U.S. Treasury - Fact Sheet on the History of "In God We Trust"". United States Department of the Treasury. Retrieved 2011-05-23.
  14. ^ Congressional Record, 1956, p. 13917, via NonBeliever.org
  15. ^ a b c The U.S. National Mottos: Their History and Constitutionality, ReligiousTolerance.org [1]
  16. ^ Steven B. Epstein, "Rethinking the Constitutionality of Ceremonial Deism" Columbia Law Review, Vol. 96, No. 8. (Dec., 1996), p. 2083–2174, quoting the peroration (abridged here) of the speech by Charles Edward Bennett, sponsor in the House, the only speech in either House of Congress on the subject. President Eisenhower and W. Randolph Burgess, Deputy to the Treasury for Monetary Affairs, had approved of the legislation! 101 Congressional Record pp. 4384 (quoted), 7796. (1955)
  17. ^ Felicia Sonmez (1 November 2011). "Social issues return to fore with 'In God We Trust' resolution". The Washington Post. Retrieved 7 November 2011. "In 2006, on the 50th anniversary of its adoption, the Senate reaffirmed 'In God We Trust' as the official national motto of the United States," Forbes said in a statement announcing the vote. "Tomorrow, the House of Representatives will have the same opportunity to reaffirm our national motto and directly confront a disturbing trend of inaccuracies and omissions, misunderstandings of church and state, rogue court challenges, and efforts to remove God from the public domain by unelected bureaucrats."
  18. ^ Jennifer Steinhauer (3 November 2011). "In God We Trust, With the House's Help". The New York Times. Retrieved 7 November 2011. Citing a crisis of national identity and mass confusion among Americans about their nation's motto, the House on Tuesday voted on a resolution "reaffirming 'In God We Trust' as the official motto of the United States."
  19. ^ Todd Starnes (3 November 2011). "See Which Congressmen Voted Against 'In God We Trust'". Fox News. Retrieved 7 November 2011. The House of Representatives passed a bi-partisan resolution Tuesday night reaffirming "In God We Trust" as the official motto of the United States. The 396-9 vote came at the request of Rep. Randy Forbes (R-VA).
  20. ^ "USA TODAY/CNN/Gallup Poll results". USA Today. 2011. Retrieved 15 November 2011. C. The inscription "In God We Trust" on U.S. coins; 2003 Sep 19-21; Approve 90; Disapprove 8; No opinion 2
  21. ^ The Regimental Committee, 125th PA Volunteers, 1862–1863 (2009). Regimental History. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Library. pp. 150–152. ISBN 9-781112-135705.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  22. ^ Alexander, ted (2011). The Battle of Antietam. Charleston, SC: The History Press. p. 76. ISBN 978-1-60949-179-6.
  23. ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=KGbcJJEhqPgC&pg=PA106&lpg=PA106&dq=In+God+We+Trust+Muslims&source=bl&ots=8L1jFroIcl&sig=8kscF-X_xlWustNSPoSxDK9CjI4&hl=en&sa=X&ei=oDMtUOL3LoP7ygH6lIGQCA&ved=0CDIQ6AEwADgU#v=onepage&q=In%20God%20We%20Trust%20Muslims&f=false
  24. ^ http://www.indystar.com/article/20120811/LIFE04/208110323/In-Hinduism-there-just-one-God-many-forms
  25. ^ a b Richard H. Fallon (2004). The Dynamic Constitution: an Introduction to Americans Constitutional Law. Cambridge University Press. p. 60. ISBN 9780521600781. "Strict separationists" believe that the government has no business supporting religious beliefs or institutions in any way - for example, by providing tax breaks to churches, assisting parochial schools, including prayers or benedictions in public ceremonies, or inscribing "In God We Trust" on the currency. Religious accommodationists can well explain why certain entrenched social practices (such as the inscription of "In God We Trust" on the currency) were not historically perceived as presenting constitutional difficulties: The relevant practices are not coercive and do not prefer one narrow sect over another.
  26. ^ ""In God We Trust"--Stamping Out Religion On National Currency". Flashline. American Atheists. 1999-03-15. Retrieved 2011-08-13. Atheists and separationists are taking pen in hand, and obliterating the "In God We Trust" motto from the national currency. Scratching out "In God We Trust," or stamping separationist slogans on the currency displays the frustration that many atheists have in dealing with a legal system which rarely holds to a stern and strict interpretation of the establishment clause.
  27. ^ The Humanities: Culture, Continuity & Change, Second Edition, Henry M. Sayre, P. 58, print.
  28. ^ Aronow, 432 F.2d at 243.
  29. ^ LYNCH v. DONNELLY, 465 U.S. 668 (1984) U.S. Supreme Court
  30. ^ ABA Journal Sep 1962. Much more recently, in 1952, speaking through Mr. Justice Douglas in Zorach v. Clauson, 343 U.S. 306, 313, the Supreme Court repeated the same sentiments, saying: We are a religious people whose institutions presuppose a Supreme Being. Mr. Justice Brewer in the Holy Trinity case, supra, mentioned many of these evidences of religion, and Mr. Justice Douglas in the Zorach case referred to ... [P]rayers in our legislative halls; the appeals to the Almighty in the messages of the Chief Executive; the proclamation making Thanksgiving Day a holiday; "So help me God" in our courtroom oaths - these and ... other references to the Almighty ... run through our laws, our public rituals, our ceremonies ... the supplication with which the Court opens each session: "God save the United States and this Honorable Court" (312-313). To this list may be added tax exemption of churches, chaplaincies in the armed forces, the "Pray for Peace" postmark, the widespread observance of Christmas holidays, and, in classrooms, singing the fourth stanza of America which is prayer invoking the protection of God, and the words "in God is our trust" as found in the National Anthem, and the reciting of the Pledge of Allegiance to the Flag, modified by an Act of Congress of June 14, 1954, to included the words "under God".
  31. ^ Atheist protests `In God We Trust' posting
  32. ^ Judge turns down atheist's suit challenging 'In God We Trust'
  33. ^ "Historic Change", Snopes, http://www.snopes.com/politics/religion/dollarcoin.asp
  34. ^ Kansas Department of Revenue - Kansas In God We Trust License Plate
  35. ^ ‘In God We Trust' stickers would be free | ajc.com
  36. ^ 'In God We Trust' license plates to be available in January | Politics and Government | Kentucky.com
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