Hamilcar Barca

Hamilcar Barca
Born	275 BC
Died	228 BC
Title	Carthaginian General
Term	17 years; 247 - 228 BC
Successor	Hasdrubal the Fair
Children	Hannibal Hasdrubal Barca Mago Barca

Hamilcar Barca or Barcas (c. 275 – 228 BC) was a Carthaginian general and statesman, leader of the Barcid family, and father of Hannibal, Hasdrubal and Mago. He was also father-in-law to Hasdrubal the Fair.

The name Hamilcar (Punic-Phoenician ḥmlqrt, "brother of Melqart") was a common name for Carthaginian men. The name Brq (or Baraq) means "thunderbolt" in the Punic language and is thus equivalent to the epithet or cognomen Keraunos, common among many contemporary Greek commanders. The word remains in Lebanese, Arabic and Hebrew with the same meaning.

Hamilcar commanded the Carthaginian land forces in Sicily from 247 BC to 241 BC during the latter stages of the First Punic War. He kept his army intact and led a successful guerrilla war against the Romans in Sicily. Hamilcar retired to Africa after the peace treaty in 241 BC with the defeat of Carthage. When the Mercenary War burst out in 240 BC, Hamilcar was recalled to command and was instrumental in concluding that conflict successfully. Hamilcar commanded the Carthaginian expedition to Spain in 237 BC, and for eight years expanded the territory of Carthage in Spain before dying in battle in 228 BC. He may have been responsible for creating the strategy which his son Hannibal implemented in the Second Punic War to bring the Roman Republic close to defeat.

Early life

Little is known about the origins or history of the Barca family prior to the Punic Wars. The names of Hamilcars’ parents are unknown, and it is hypothesized that the family may have come from Cyrene and was part of the landed aristocracy of Carthage. Hamilcar was young at 33 when he received the Sicilian command in 247 BC. By this time he had three daughters, and his son Hannibal was born in 247 BC.

Situation in Sicily

The Carthaginians had gained command of the sea after their victory in the Battle of Drepanum in 249 BC, but they only held two cities in Sicily: Lilybaeum and Drepanum by the time Hamilcar took up command. The Carthaginian state was led by the landed aristocracy at the time, and they preferred to expand into Africa instead of perusing an aggressive policy in Sicily. Hanno "The Great" was in charge of operations in Africa since 248 BC and had conquered considerable territory by 241 BC.

Carthage at this time was feeling the strain of the prolonged conflict. In addition to maintaining a fleet and soldiers in Sicily they were also fighting the Libyans and Numidians in Africa. As a result Hamilcar was given a fairly small army and the Carthaginian fleet was gradually withdrawn so that by 242 BC Carthage had no ships to speak of in Sicily.

Hamilcar in Sicily

Hamilcar Barca’s probable base near Panormus in 247 BC. A generic representation, not to exact scale and not all information shown.

Carthaginian leadership probably thought Rome had been defeated and invested little manpower in Sicily. With a small force and no money to hire new troops, Hamilcar’s strategic goal probably was to maintain a stalemate, as he had not the recourses to win the war and nor the authority to peacefully settle it Hamilcar was in command of a mercenary army composed of multiple nationalities and his ability to successfully lead this force demonstrates his skill as field commander. He employed combined arms tactics, like Alexander or Pyhrrus, and his strategy was similar to the one employed by Quintus Fabius Maximus in the Second Punic War, ironically against Hannibal, the eldest son of Hamilcar Barca in Italy during 217 BC. The difference is that Fabius commanded a numerically superior army than his opponent and had no supply problems, and had room to maneuver, while Hamilcar was mostly static and had a far smaller army than the Romans and was dependent on seaborne supplies from Carthage.

Panormus 247 BC – 244 BC

Hamilcar, upon taking command in the summer of 247 BC, punished the rebellious mercenaries (unruly because of overdue payment) by murdering some of them at night and drowning the rest at sea, and dismissing many to Africa. With a reduced army and fleet, Hamilcar commenced his operations. Romans had divided their forces, Consul L. Caelius Matellus was near Lilybaeum while Numerius Fabius Buteo was besieging Drepanum at that time. Hamilcar probably fought an inconclusive battle at Drepana, but there is cause to doubt this.

Hamilcar next raided Locri in Bruttium and the area around Brindisi in 247 BC, and upon his return he seized a strong position on Mount Ercte (Monte Pellegrino, just north of Palermo or Mt. Castellacio, 7 miles north-west of Palermo), and not only maintained himself against all attacks, but carried on with his seaborne raids ranging from Catana in Sicily to far as Cumae in central Italy. He also set about improving the spirit of the army, and succeeded in creating a highly disciplined, versatile force. While Hamilcar won no large scale battle or recaptured any cities lost to the Romans, he waged a relentless campaign against the enemy, and caused a constant drain on Roman resources. However, if Hamilcar had hoped to recapture Panormus, he failed in his strategy.

Eryx 244 BC – 241 BC

Hamilcar Barca’s and the Roman Positions nead Eryx. A generic description, not to exact scale.

In 244 BC Hamilcar transferred his army at night by sea to a similar position on the slopes of Mt. Eryx (Monte San Giuliano), from which he was able to lend support to the besieged garrison in the neighboring town of Drepanum (Trapani). Hamilcar sized the town of Eryx, captured by the Romans in 249 BC after destroying the Roman garrison, and positioned his army between the Roman forces stationed at the summit and their camp at the base of the mountain. Hamilcar removed the population to Drepana. Hamilcar continued his activities unhindered from his position for another two years, being supplied by road from Drepana, although Carthaginian ships had been withdrawn from Sicily by this time and no naval raids were launched. During one of the raids, when troops under a subordinate commander named “Boaster” engaged in plunder against the orders of Hamilcar and suffered severe casualties when the Romans caught up to them, Hamilcar requested a truce to bury his dead. Roman consul Fundanius (243/2 BC) arrogantly replied that Hamilcar should request a truce to save his living and denied the request. Hamilcar managed to inflict severe casualties on the Romans soon after, and when the Roman consul requested a truce to bury his dead, Hamilcar replied that his quarrel was with the living only and the dead had already settled their dues, and granted the truce.

The actions of Hamilcar, and his immunity to defeat, plus the stalemate at the siege of Lilybaeum caused the Romans to start building a fleet in 243 BC to seek a decision at sea. However, the constant skirmishing without ultimate victory may have caused the morale of some of Hamilcar’s troops to crack and 1,000 Celtic mercenaries tried to betray the Punic camp to the Romans, which was foiled. Hamilcar had to promise considerable rewards to keep the morale of his army up, which was to near fatal problems for Carthage later on.

Roman response: privately funded fleet

The Roman Republic was broke and nearly exhausted and had to borrow money from wealthy citizens to fund the construction of a fleet of 200 Quinquiremes, which blockaded Carthaginian positions in Sicily in 242 BC by seizing the harbor of Drepana and anchorages at Lilybaeum, while Roman soldiers built siege works around Drepanum. The better trained Roman fleet defeated a hastily raised undermanned and ill trained Punic fleet at Battle of the Aegates Islands in 241 BC, cutting off Sicily from Carthage. Carthaginian Leadership requested terms to the victorious Roman commander, Gaius Lutatius Catulus and authorized Hamilcar Barca to open negotiations, probably to avoid the responsibility of the defeat. Hamilcar in turn nominated Gisco, the Carthaginian commander of Lilybaeum to conduct the actual talks. Carthage often hauled defeated generals and admirals before the Tribunal of 100 and had them crucified, so Hamilcar probably distanced himself from the possibility of prosecution if the Roman terms turned out to be harsh enough for Carthaginian authorities to seek a scapegoat.

Peace of Lutatius: terms of the treaty

This treaty replaced all previous treaties between the two powers. The initial conditions laid out by Lutatius to Gisco were:

• The Carthaginians will evacuate all Sicily
• Carthage should not make war on Syracuse and their allies
• Carthage would pay Rome 2,200 Euobean sSilver talents (56 tons) over a 20 year period as reparations.
• The Carthaginian army would surrender their weapons and all Roman deserters immediately.

Hamilcar Barca refused the demand to surrender Roman deserters or disarm Carthaginian soldiers despite being threatened by Lutatius to have the Punic army pass under the yoke. Lutatius did not press the issue further, and the Carthaginian soldiers were later allowed to leave Sicily under arms with their honor intact, and without any token of submission – a rare gesture granted by the Romans to a defeated enemy. Roman deserters may have been surrendered on a later date.

Lutatius did not have the authority to ratify the agreement he made with Hamilcar, so he forwarded them to the Comitia Centuriata in Rome. The Romans rejected these terms and appointed ten commissioners, led by Quantius Lutatius Cerco, brother of the consul and himself consul in 240 BC, to reexamine the conditions. They added the following conditions in addition to the ones given by Lutatius initially:

• Carthage would evacuate all islands between Italy and Sicily – probably the Aegates Islands in addition to the Aeolian Islands. This meant Roman acknowledgement of Carthaginian control over Malta, Pantelleria, Sardinia and Corsica.
• Carthage would pay 2,200 silver talents in 10 year installments, and 1,000 talents immediately, a total of 3,200 talents as war reparations.
• Carthage will ransom all Punic prisoners while all Roman prisoners would be freed without payment of ransom
• Carthaginian warships were forbidden to sail along Italian shore or those of their allies
• Neither side should make war against on the other’s allies, or seek to change their allegiance by allying with them directly or interfering with their internal affairs. Neither side would seek to recruit soldiers, levy tribute or build public building on the other’s territories.

The last condition is mentioned by Polybius in place of the one regarding not making war on Syracuse. It is possible that Hamilcar Barca secured the last clause after the initial conditions, which was more favorable to Carthage, was altered by Rome with a harsher one. Hamilcar Barca gathered the Carthaginian soldiers from Drepana and Eryx at Lilybaeum, surrendered his command, returned to Carthage and retired to private life, leaving Gisco and the Carthaginian government to pay off his soldiers.

The Truce less War

The “Undefeated” army now created a unique problem for Carthage. Had Hamilcar suffered a decisive defeat, casualties and prisoners would have diminished their numbers and Carthage would have had an excuse not to pay anything. But the now the 20,000 men strong army had to be paid their dues fully.

Gisco sensibly sent the troops to Carthage in small groups with intervals in between so the government could pay them off without trouble. However, the Carthaginian authorities waited until the whole army had gathered at Carthage then send them off to Sicca, planning to plead with the whole army to forego their unpaid wages by pointing out the dire financial situation of Carthage. Hamilcar’s soldiers, who had been kept together only by his personal authority and by the promise of good pay, broke out into open mutiny and marched on Carthage and encamped at Tunis. Although Carthage at this point conceded all their demands, things soon boiled over and started the conflicted known as the Mercenary War. The rebels were joined by numerous African subjects of Carthage.

Hanno the Great initially commanded the Punic army, but after his defeat at Utica Hamilcar Barca was called out of retirement. Hamicar defeated the rebels at Macar, but was later trapped by the rebels, from which he was saved by the defection of Navaras and his cavalry from the rebel ranks. Hamilcar next invited Hanno to join forces, but cooperation between them was ineffective and the Peoples assembly voted to give Hamilcar sole command By the power of his personal influence among the mercenaries and the surrounding African peoples, superior strategy and some luck, Hamilcar, and also cooperation, if unenthusiastic, from Hanno the Great, Hamilcar crushed the revolt by (237 BC) amid a war marked with cruel atrocities from both sides.

The Sardinia Affair

Punic Mercenaries in Sardinia had rebelled in 239 BC and driven the Carthaginians out of the Island. Carthage began to prepare to recapture the island in 237 BC when Romans intervened. Rome, which had dealt with Carthage with all due honor and courtesy during the crisis, going as far as to release all Punic prisoners without ransom and refuse to accept offers from Utica and Rebels mercenaries based in Sardinia to incorporate these territories into the Roman domain, seized Sardinia and Corsica and forced Carthage to pay 1,200 talents for her initial refusal to renounce her claim over the islands. This probably dealt a fatal blow to any chance of permanent peace between Rome and Carthage and is one of the causes of the Second Punic War and held as the motivation of the subsequent military and political activities of Hamilcar.

Punic Politics

The aristocratic party had dominated Carthaginian politics since 248 BC. Hanno the Great was aligned with them and they espoused peaceful relations with Rome, even at the cost of abandoning overseas territories. Their chose to minimize the Sicilian operations while Hamilcar was in command, reduce the navy and support Hanno the Great’s conquests in Africa, all of which were causes for the ultimate defeat of Carthage in the First Punic War. They had remained in power throughout the Mercenary War and had advocated Hanno’s position over Hamilcar’s more than once.

Their opponents probably had support of people who had wanted to continue the war even after defeat at Aegates Island. The Mercantile Class, whose interests were hurt by the war and would be marginalized by the abandonment of overseas operations, also supported this fraction. People disenfranchised by the ruin of the navy and disruption of trade might have thrown in their lot with this group and Hasdrubal the Fair emerged as the leader eventually. Hamilcar, furious that Sicily had been given up too soon while he had been undefeated, could rely on support from this party.

There is no clear record of the political activity in Carthage at this time. The political clout of the incumbent leaders was probably weakened by the defeat in the First Punic War, their mismanagement of the Mercenary troops and finally the Sardinia Affair. In an effort to reestablish their position, they decided to make a scapegoat of Hamilcar Barca.

Hamilcar Supreme in Carthage

Hamilcar Barca was blamed by Carthaginian Leaders for causing the Mercenary War by making unrealistic promises to his soldiers, especially the Celts during his command in Sicily. This event may have taken place as early as 241 BC or more likely in 237 BC. The influence Hamilcar enjoyed among the people and the opposition party enabled him to avoid standing trial. Furthermore, Hamilcar allied with Hasdrubal the Fair, his future son in law, to restrict the power of the aristocracy, which was led by {{Hanno the Great]], as well as gain immunity from prosecution. Hamilcar’s faction gained enough clout, if not supreme power in Carthage, for Hamilcar to implement his next agenda. Hamilcar’s first priority probably was to ensure that the war indemnity was paid regularly so the Romans had no excuse to interfere in Carthaginian affairs. His second was to implement his strategy for preparing Carthage for any future conflict with Rome, or enable Carthage to defend itself against any aggression.

Operations in Africa

Hamilcar obtained permission from the Carthaginian Senate for recruiting and training a new army, with the immediate goal of securing the African domain of Carthage. As this was in line with the goal of the “Peace Party” of Hanno the Great, probably no serious opposition was offered. Training for the army was obtained in some Numidian forays, then Hamilcar marched the army West to the Pillars of Hercules. Hasdrubal the Fair commanded the fleet carrying supplies and elephants along the coast, keeping pace with the army.

Hamilcar on his own responsibility without the consent of the Carthaginian government ferried the army across to Gades to start an expedition into Hispania (236 BC), where he hoped to gain a new empire to compensate Carthage for the loss of Sicily and Sardinia. Iberia would also serve as a base for any future conflicts against the Romans independent of political interference from Carthage, and the campaigns would enhance the reputation of Hamilcar Barca. Hamilcar’s political clout in Carthage may have been enough to stifle any opposition in Carthage against his Iberian venture, or he did face stiff opposition and had used the booty from his Iberian campaigns to buy his way out. Whatever the case, Hamilcar enjoyed uninterrupted command in Iberia during his stay there.

Barcid Spain

Hamilcar’s army either crossed the Straits of Gibraltar into Iberia from West Africa or having returned to Carthage after the African activities, sailed along the African coast to Gades. Hasdrubal the Fair and Hannibal, then a child of nine, accompanied Hamilcar, it is not known who led Hamilcar’s supporters in Carthage in the absence of Hamilcar and Hasdrubal. Prior to his departure from Carthage, Hamilcar made sacrifices to obtain favorable omens and Hannibal swore never to be a “Friend of Rome” or “Never to show goodwill to the Romans. Several modern historians has interpreted this as Hannibal swearing to be a lifelong enemy of Rome bent on revenge while others hold that this interpretation is a distortion.

Iberian Political Situation

Hamilcar probably landed at Gades in the summer of 237 BC. Whatever direct territorial control Carthage have had in the past in Iberia had been lost by this time as Hamilcar was “re-establishing Carthaginian authority in Iberia”. Phoenician colonies strung along the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts in Southwestern Spain and exercised some degree of control over immediate areas near them, but had only trading contacts but no direct control over the tribes of Iberia at that time. Iberian and Celtiberian tribes were not under any unified leadership at this time, some have had absorbed varying degrees of Greek and Punic cultural influence, and were warlike.

Ancient Rivals: Punics and Phocaeans

The failure of Carthage to prevent the establishment of Massalia by Phocaean Greeks in 600 BC had created a rival which eventually came to dominate trade in Gaul and plant colonies in Catalonia, at Mainke near Malaga, three colonies near the mouth of Sucro, and at Alalia in Corsica. Greek piracy had forced Carthage to team up with the Etruscans and drive the Greeks from Corsica, and destroy the colony at Mainke in Iberia. Massalia had managed to defeat Carthage twice by 490 BC and a boundary along Cape Nao in Iberia was agreed upon, while Cartage had closed the Straights of Gibraltar to foreign shipping. Massalia had become friendly with Rome over the years, if not an outright ally by 237 BC, and this connection would become a significant factor in the power politics of the region.

Securing the Silver Supply

Hamilcar’s immediate objective was to secure access to the gold and silver mines of Sierra Morena, either by direct and indirect control. Negotiations with the “Tartessian” tribes were successfully concluded, but Hamilcar faced hostility from the Trudatani or Truduli tribe, near the foothills of modern Seville and Cordoba. The Iberians had the support from Celtiberian tribes and were under the command of two chieftains, Istolatios and his brother. Hamilcar defeated the confederates, killed the leaders and several of their soldiers, while he released a number of prisoners and incorporated 3,000 of the enemy into his army. The Trudetani surrendered. Hamilcar then fought a 50,000 strong army under a chieftain named Indortes. The Iberian army fled before the battle joined was joined. Hamilcar besieged Indortes, tortured and crucified him after his surrender but allowed 10,000 of the captured enemy soldiers to go home.

Having secured control over the mines, and the river routes of Guadalquiver and Guadalete giving access to the mining area, Gades began to mint silver coins from 237 BC. Carthaginians may have taken control of the mining operations and introduced new technologies to increase production. Hamilcar now had the means to pay for his mercenary army and also ship silver ore to Carthage to help pay off the war indemnity. Hamicar was in a secure enough position in Iberia to send Hasdrubal the Fair with an army to Africa to quell a Numidian rebellion in 236 BC. Hasdrubal defeated the rebels, killing 8,000 and taking 2,000 prisoners before returning to Iberia.

Expanding Eastward 235 BC – 231 BC

Hamilcar, after subduing Trudetania next moved east from Gades towards Cape Nao. He met fierce resistance from the Iberia tribes, even the friendly Bastetani offered battle. Four years of constant campaigns, details of which are not known, saw Hamilcar subdue the area between Gades and Cape Nao. In the process Hamilcar created a professional army of Iberains, Africans, Numidians and other mercenaries which Hasdrubal the Fair would inherit and Hannibal would later lead across the Alps to immortality. By 231 BC Hamilcar Barca had consolidated his Iberian territorial gains and established the city of Arka Luke, probably in 235 BC to guard Punic holdings, and possibly took over the area of Massalian colonies near the mouth of Sucro River. Massalia, probably alarmed by the Carthaginian advance towards their area of influence, informed Rome of Carthaginian expansion in Iberia, who decided to investigate the matter.

Rome takes a look

While Hamilcar campaigned in Iberia, Rome was entangled in Sardinia, Corsica and Liguria, where the natives had put up stiff resistance against Roman occupation, and campaigns had been fought in these areas between 236 – 231 BC to retain and expand Roman dominion. Rome suspected Carthage of aiding the natives, and had sent embassies to Carthage in 236, 235, 233 and 230 BC to accuse and threaten the Punic state. Nothing had come off these supposed episode and some scholars doubt their authenticity. A Roman embassy visited Hamilcar in Spain in 231 BC to inquire about his activities. Hamilcar simply replied that he was fighting to gather enough booty to pay off the war indemnity. The Romans withdrew and did not bother the Carthaginians in Spain until 226 BC.

Final Campaigns 231 BC – 228 BC

After the establishment of Akra Luke, Hamilcar began to move north west, no records of his campaigns exist. Hamilcar had split his forces in the winter of 228 BC, Hasdrubal the Fair was sent on a separate campaign while Hamilcar besieged an Iberian town, then sent the bulk of his troops to winter quarters at Arke Luke. Hamilcar’s sons, Hannibal and Hasdrubal had accompanied him. The town, called Helike, is commonly identified with Elche, but given that it is situated close to Hamilcar’s base at Arke Luke from which he could readily draw reinforcement, it cannot be the place where the following events unfolded. It is possible that Hamilcar died battling the Vettoni, who lived across the Tagus west of Toledo and to the north of Truduli and north west of Oritani territory.

Death of Hamilcar

Orissus, chieftain of the Oretani tribe came to the assistance of the besieged town. There are several versions to what happened next: Orissus offered to aid Hamilcar then attacked the Punic army and Hamilcar drowned during a retreat across the Jucar river, or The Oretani sent oxen driven carts on the Carthaginian position then set them on fire and Hamilcar died in the resulting melee, or Hamilcar accepted an offer to parley, then led the enemy in one direction while Hannibal and Hasdrubal Barca fled in the opposite direction and Hamilcar was thrown from his horse and drowned in a river, or he fell in battle in an unknown corner of Iberia against an unnamed tribe.

In eight years by force of arms and diplomacy Hamilcar secured an extensive territory in Hispania, but his premature death in battle (228 BC) denied Carthage a complete conquest. He founded the port of Barcino (deriving its name from the Barca family), which was later adopted and used by the Roman Empire and is, today, the city of Barcelona. Hamilcar stood out far above the Carthaginians of his age in military and diplomatic skill and in strength of patriotism; in these qualities he was surpassed only by his son Hannibal, whom he had imbued with his own deep suspicion of Rome and trained to be his successor in the conflict.

Family

Main article: Barcid

Hamilcar had at least three daughters and at least three sons.

His first daughter was married to Bomilcar, who was a suffete of Carthage and may have commanded the Punic fleet in the Second Punic war. His grandson, Hanno, was an important commander in the army of his son Hannibal.

The second daughter was married to Hasdrubal the Fair.

His third daughter married Berber ally Naravas, a Numidian chieftain whose defection had saved Hamilcar and his army during the mercenary war.

Hamilcar had three sons, Hannibal, Hasdrubal and Mago, who were all to have distinguished military careers. A fourth unnamed son is often mentioned but details are lacking.

Repute

He allegedly founded the city of Barcino (currently named Barcelona) while he was on Hispania.

Hamilcar in literature

• Salammbô, by Gustave Flaubert
• Pride of Carthage, by David Anthony Durham
• The cat of the titular protagonist of The Crime of Sylvestre Bonnard, by Anatole France, begins the book with a cat named Hamilcar, and ends it with a kitten named Hannibal.
• In the manga Bio Booster Armor Guyver, one of the villains is named Hamilcar Barcas.
• The father of the protagonist, Claus Valca, in the anime television series Last Exile is named Hamilcar Valca, "Valca" being a Japanese mis-transliteration of "Barca" (V for B, and L for R).
• In the 2002 film The Emperor's Club, starring Kevin Kline, Hamilcar Barca is the subject of a question asked during the final stages of an educational competition. The question, trivial in nature, initiates an important turning point in how events of the story unfold.

See also

• Barcid family
• Battle of the Bagradas River (239 BC)

Bibliography

• Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Hamilcar Barca" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
• Baker, G. P. (1999). Hannibal. New York: Cooper Square Press. ISBN 0-8154-1005-0.
• Bath, Tony (1995). Hannibal's Campaigns. New York: Barnes & Noble Books. ISBN 0-88029-817-0.
• Bagnall, Nigel (2005). The Punic Wars. New York: Thomas Dunne Books/St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-34214-4.
• Goldsworthy, Adrian (2003). The Fall of Carthage. London: Cassell. ISBN 0-304-36642-0.
• Lancel, Serge (1999). Hannibal. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-21848-3.
• Lazenby, John Francis (1998). Hannibal's War. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3004-0.
• Lazenby, John Francis (1996). The First Punic War. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 1-85728-136-5.

Further reading

• Warry, John (1993). Warfare in The Classical World. Salamander Books Ltd. ISBN 1-56619-463-6.
• Lancel, Serge (1997). Carthage A History. Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 1-57718-103-4.

External links

• Livius.org: Hamilcar Barca