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{| class="wikitable" border="1"
The [[Staffordshire Hoard]] is the largest [[hoard]] of [[Anglo-Saxon art|Anglo-Saxon]] gold and silver metalwork {{asof|2011|10|alt=yet found}}. Discovered in a field near the village of [[Hammerwich]], near [[Lichfield]], in [[Staffordshire]], [[England]], on 5&nbsp;July 2009, it consists of over 3,500 items<ref name=natgeo1111>{{cite journal|last=Alexander|first=Caroline|title=Magical Mystery Treasure|journal=National Geographic|date=November 2011|volume=220|issue=5|pages=44|url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2011/11/gold-hoard/alexander-text}}</ref> that are nearly all martial in character and contains no objects specific to female uses.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Find|url=http://www.staffordshirehoard.org.uk/about|publisher=Staffordshire Hoard|accessdate=14 June 2011}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Leahy|Bland|2009|p=9}}</ref> It demonstrates that considerable quantities of high-grade goldsmiths’ work were in circulation among the elite during the 7th century. It also shows that, superb though individual pieces may be in terms of craftsmanship, the value of such items as bullion and their potential roles as tribute or the spoils of war could, in a warrior society, outweigh appreciation of their integrity and artistry.
|-

|<!--Col1--><center>[[File:St Peters Chapel.jpg|225x280px]]</center>
The coming of Christianity revolutionised the visual arts, as well as other aspects of society. Art had to fulfil new functionsAND whereas pagan art was abstract, Christianity required clear themes and images. The transition between the christian and pagan traditions is occasionally apparent in 7th century works; examples include the Crundale buckle<ref>Adams, Noël. "Rethinking the Sutton Hoo Shoulder Clasps and Armour." Intelligible Beauty: Recent Research on Byzantine ewellery. London: British Museum Research Publications 178 (2010): 87-116.</ref> and the Canterbury pendant<ref>Mills, Allan A. "The Canterbury Pendant: A Saxon Seasonal-Hour Altitude Dial." PI Drinkwater:‘Comments upon the Canterbury Pendant’, and AJ Turner:‘The Canterbury Dial’, Bull BSS 95.2 (1995): 95.</ref>. In addition to fostering metalworking skills, Christianity stimulated stone sculpture and manuscript illumination. This meant, Germanic motifs, such as interlace and animal ornament along with Celtic spiral patterns, are juxtaposed with Christian imagery and Mediterranean decoration, notably vine-scroll. Works from the south were more restrained in their ornamentation than are those from Northumbria. The jamb of the doorway at Monkwearmouth, carved with a pair of lacertine beasts, probably dates from the 680s; the golden, garnet-adorned pectoral cross of St Cuthbert was presumably made before 687; while the wooden coffin of the same saint (incised with Christ and the evangelist symbols, the Virgin and Child, archangels and apostles), the Lindisfarne Gospels, and the Codex Amiatinus all date from c.700. The fact that these works are all from Northumbria might be held to reflect the particular strength of the church in that kingdom during the second half of the century.<ref>Webster, Leslie, Janet Backhouse, and Marion Archibald. The Making of England: Anglo-Saxon Art and Culture, AD 600-900. Univ of Toronto Pr, 1991.</ref>
|<!--Col2--><center>[[File:Brixworth Church Northamptonshire.jpg|135x180px]]</center>

|<!--Col3--><center>[[File:Barnack church.JPG|225x280px]]</center>
[[Image:BookCerneEvangalist.jpeg|thumb|240px l Book of Cerne, Cambridge University Library, MS Ll.1.10 - The Gospel of St. Mark miniature on folio 12 verso.]]
|<!--Col4--><center>[[File:Sompting Church ext from west.JPG|135x180px]]</center>
In the 8th century, Anglo-Saxon christian art flourished with grand decorated manuscripts and sculptures, along with ‘secular’ works which bear comparable ornament, like the Witham pins and the Coppergate helmet.<ref>THOMAS, GABOR. "OVERVIEW: CRAFT PRODUCTION AND TECHNOLOGY." The Oxford Handbook of Anglo-Saxon Archaeology (2011): 405.</ref> The flourishing of sculpture in Mercia, occurred slightly later than in Northumbria and is dated to the second half of the 8th century. Some fine decorated southern books, above all the Bible fragment, can be securely assigned to the earlier 9th century, owing to the similarity of their script to that of charters from that period; The [[Book of Cerne]] is an early 9th century Insular or [[Anglo-Saxon]] [[Latin]] personal prayer book with [[Old English]] components. This manuscript was decorated and embellished with four painted full-page miniatures, major and minor letters, continuing panels, and litterae notibiliores. The ornamental elements include zoomorphic/animal, floral, interlace, and curvilinear motifs and designs. The color palette employed by the artist/illuminator consisted of pigments of gold, purple, blues, red, red/brown, yellow, green, white, and black. The pigment binding medium was clarified egg white or clarea.<ref>Brown 1996, pp. 70, 73.</ref> Further decorated motifs used in these manuscripts, such as hunched, triangular beasts, also appear on objects from the Trewhiddle hoard (buried in the 870s) and on the rings which bear the names of King Æthelwulf and Queen Æthelswith, which are the centre of a small corpus of fine ninth-century metalwork.
|-

|<!--Col1-->Peter-in-the-Wall,Essex: A simple nave church of the early style c. 650
Yet despite some demonstrable continuity in the south, it is indisputable that the Viking invasions and settlement represented a watershed in England’s artistic tradition. The ravages removed or destroyed much Anglo-Saxon art, while the settlement introduced new Scandinavian craftsmen and patrons. The result was to accentuate the pre-existing distinction between the art of the north and that of the south. In the tenth and eleventh centuries, the Viking dominated areas were characterised by stone sculpture in which the Anglo-Saxon tradition of cross shafts took on new forms, and a distinctive Anglo-Scandinavian monument, the ‘hogback’ tomb, was produced. The ring-headed cross type of Celtic ancestry was now favoured; some shafts, such as those at Sockburn, Co. Durham, and Middleton, Yorks., featured depictions of warriors; while others, such as that at Gosforth, included scenes from Scandinavian mythology.
|<!--Col2-->Brixworth, Northants: monastery founded by [[Sexwulf]] c. 800

|<!--Col3-->Barnack, Peterborough: Towered church c. 970 - spire is later
The causes of the Viking Age have been the subject of scholarly discussions; some look at the regional contexts <ref>N¨asman, U. Raids, migrations and kingdoms – the Danish case. Acta Archaeologica 71: 1-7.</ref><ref>V´ esteinsson, O., H. Rorlaksson & A. Einarsson. 2006. Reykjav´ık 871+2 Landn´amss´yningin: the settlement exhibition. Reykjav´ık: Reykjav´ık City
|<!--Col4-->Sompting Church, Sussex: A Romanesque style church . c1050
Museum.</ref>, others address the issue within broad narratives,<ref>Richards, J.D. 2000. Viking Age England. Stroud: Tempus: 18-19</ref><ref>Hadley, D.M. 2006. The Vikings in England: settlement, society and culture. Manchester:Manchester University Press: 16-21</ref> and yet others challenge the relevance of the Viking Age as a socio-economic watershed or a useful unit of analysis<ref>Hodges, R. 2006. Goodbye to the Vikings? in R.Hodges (ed.) Goodbye to the Vikings? Re-reading early medieval archaeology: 157-62. London: Duckworth.</ref> James Barrett in a survey of the causes suggests that the Scandinavian diaspora was not a product of technological (the tradition that their boats were better), climatic (the tradition that it was a warmer period) or economic determinism (that the development of urban centres created teh condition).<ref>Barrett, James H. "What caused the Viking age." antiquity 82.317 (2008): 671-685.</ref> Also, the tradition that it came from "overpopulation" seems to be without evidence<ref>Dyer, C. 2002. Making a living in the Middle Ages. London: Yale University Press.</ref>. Instead there is some consenus for believing that bands of "surplus" young men - perhaps resulting from selective female infanticide - in need of bride-wealth may have set out in search of treasure.<ref>Brettell, C.B. 2000. Theorizing migration in anthropology: the social construction of networks, identities, communities and globalscapes, in C.B. Brettell & J.F. Hollifield (ed.) Migration theory: talking across disciplines: 97-136. London: Routledge.</ref> As has long been recognised, they were joined by would-be chieftains, royal deputies and exiles –seeking wealth to prevail in the face of increasing competition within Scandinavia.<ref>Richards, J.D. 2000. Viking Age England. Stroud: Tempus</ref> To understand this period equal emphasis should be given to both sweeping processes of the era and individual events. Three ship-crews at Portland between 786 and 802 could not have anticipated that most of Anglo-Saxon England would be conquered by Scandinavian armies in the 870s. Nevertheless, they were part of the causal chain that led to this eventuality – and many others.<ref>Brooks, N. 1971. The development of military obligations in eighth- and ninth-century England, in P. Clemoes & K. Hughes (ed.) England before the Conquest: 69-84. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref>
|}


== Etymology ==
[[File:A.D. 500-1000, Anglo-Saxons - 022 - Costumes of All Nations (1882).JPG|thumb|Anglo-Saxons, 500-1000 CE]]

The term ''Anglo-Saxon'' can be found in documents produced in the time of [[Alfred the Great]], who seems to have frequently used the titles ''rex Anglorum Saxonum'' and ''rex Angul-Saxonum'' (king of the English [[Saxons]]).<ref>[http://omacl.org/KingAlfred/part1.html The Life of King Alfred]</ref> The terms ''ænglisc'' ('Angle-kin') and ''Angelcynn'' ('gens Anglorum') had already lost their original sense of referring to the Angles, as distinct from the Saxons, when they are first attested. In their earliest sense they referred to the nation of Germanic peoples who settled eastern Britain from the 5th century.{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}} The indigenous [[Britons (Celtic people)|Britons]], who wrote in both [[Latin]] and [[Welsh language|Welsh]], referred to these invaders as 'Saxones' or 'Saeson' – the word ''Saeson'' is the modern Welsh word for '[[English people]]';<ref>The History of Wales, John Davies, Penguin Books, 1990. ISBN01.2570 1</ref> the equivalent word in [[Scottish Gaelic]] is ''Sasannach'' and in the [[Irish language]], ''Sasanach''.

The term ''Angli Saxones'' seems to have first been used in continental writing nearly a century before Alfred's time, by [[Paul the Deacon]], historian of the [[Lombards]], probably to distinguish the English Saxons from the continental Saxons (''Ealdseaxe'', literally, 'old Saxons').{{Citation needed|date=July 2008}}

The [[Angles]] ({{lang-ang|Engle, Angle}}), took their name from their ancestral home in [[Jutland]], Angul (modern [[Angeln]]), which has an area in the shape of a hook (Old English: ''angel'', ''angul'' "fishhook", ''anga'' "hook").




==Possible reasons for migration==
=== Environmental stress ===
[[File:Anglo.Saxon.homelands.250.450.jpg|thumb|230px|The areas of the continent that experienced stress and pressure in the 5th/6th centuries]]
The low-lying continental coast of Europe was lightly populated until c. 200 BC, when the climate and environment became more amenable to human habitation.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Louwe Kooijmans|1974|pp=44–45}}, ''The Rhine/Meuse Delta''.</ref><ref>{{Harvcolnb|Ejstrud|2008|pp=17–19}}, ''The Migration Period''.
</ref> Conditions remained favourable from 200 BC to 250 AD, and the region became densely populated.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Knottnerus|2001|pp=30–31}}, LANCEWAD 2001: ''Cultural History''.</ref><ref>{{Harvcolnb|Meier|2004|pp=55,63}}, ''Man and Environment in Schleswig-Holstein''.</ref>

However the region had been undergoing a series of [[marine transgression]]s (called Dunkirk 0 through Dunkirk IIIb) characterised by a rising water table and floods that left layers of clay on the land. The heaviest blow came with the "[[Dunkirk transgression|Dunkirk II transgression]]" that began in the 3rd century and continually worsened, leaving large areas of the coast uninhabitable from c. 350&ndash;c. 700. People were forced to abandon their homes and emigrate. Archaeologists conducting research along the historically flood-prone coast tell this same story for the Rhine/Meuse delta ([[Zeeland]], [[North Brabant|Brabant]], parts of [[South Holland]] and [[Limburg (Netherlands)|Limburg]]);<ref name=Louwe>
{{Harvcolnb|Louwe Kooijmans|1974}}, ''The Rhine/Meuse Delta'', PhD Thesis.
</ref> [[Friesland]];<ref>
{{Harvcolnb|Louwe Kooijmans|1980|pp=106–133}}, ''Archaeology and Coastal Change in the Netherlands''.
</ref><ref>
{{Harvcolnb|Nienhuis|2008}}, ''Environmental History of the Rhine-Meuse Delta''.
</ref> [[Groningen (province)|Groningen]];<ref name=Knottnerus>
{{Harvcolnb|Knottnerus|2001|pp=29–63}}, ''Cultural History'' in LANCEWAD: Landscape and Cultural Heritage in the Wadden Sea Region&mdash;Project Report.</ref> [[East Frisia|Ostfriesland]], [[Friesland (district)|German Friesland]] and the [[Weser]]/[[Jade estuary]];<ref name=Louwe/><ref name=Knottnerus/> and [[Dithmarschen]], [[Eiderstedt]] and [[Nordfriesland]].<ref>
{{Harvcolnb|Meier|2004|pp=55–70}}, ''Man and environment in the marsh area of Schleswig-Holstein from Roman until late Medieval times''.
</ref><ref>
{{Harvcolnb|Meier}}, ''Landscape and Settlement History of the North-Sea Coast of Schleswig-Holstein''.
</ref>

In the Rhine/Meuse delta, the population became scanty. Between the 5th and 7th centuries few centers of occupation existed in the delta region, and in the estuarine and peat areas no settlements at all have been found. The area would not be repopulated until the [[Carolingian dynasty|Carolingian Era]].<ref>
{{Harvcolnb|Louwe Kooijmans|1974|pp=44}}, ''The Rhine/Meuse Delta''.</ref> The areas with river clay became so covered with sedimentation that habitation was almost impossible between 250&ndash;650.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Louwe Kooijmans|1974|pp=120}}, ''The Rhine/Meuse Delta''.</ref>

The northern region (coastal Netherlands, Germany and Denmark) was dominated by salt marshes, forming a district that was distinct from the southern region,<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Louwe Kooijmans|1974|pp=69}}, ''The Rhine/Meuse Delta''.</ref> and with a somewhat more erratic history, but with the same story of abandonment as [[bog]]s expanded and living conditions became intolerable. By 400&ndash;600 the outer islands were only sparsely inhabited, and virtually uninhabited from 600 to 700.

In [[Angeln]] c. 320 the population halved from its level of the 2nd and 3rd centuries,<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Ejstrud|2008|pp=22–23}}, ''The Migration Period''.</ref> with the people emigrating to points unknown (the Angles are not known to be in Britain at this early date). In the 5th century the population would again be greatly reduced, and this coincides with the arrival of the Angles in Britain.

The climate also became cooler and wetter in [[Scandinavia]],<ref>
{{Harvcolnb|Berglund|2002|pp=10}}, ''Human impact and climate changes''.
</ref> forcing the abandonment of uplands and marginally productive land in [[Norway]], and forcing the abandonment of farmsteads in both Norway and [[Denmark]], especially after 400 AD.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Issar|2003|pp=54–57}}, ''Climate Changes during the Holocene''.
</ref><ref>
{{Harvcolnb|Ejstrud|2008|pp=28}}, ''The Migration Period''.</ref>
===Strong, organised seafaring tradition===
[[File:Continental.coast.150AD.Germanic.peoples.jpg|thumb|230px|The Continent: showing Germanic areas]]
Saxon origins are complex and little understood. In the [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] pre-[[Migration Period]] (i.e., before c. 300 AD) they and the related [[Frisii]], [[Chauci]], and [[Angles]] inhabited the [[European Continent|Continental]] European coast from the [[Zuiderzee|Zuyder Zee]] to south [[Jutland]].<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Haywood|1999|pp=14}}, ''Dark Age Naval Power''.</ref> The Chauci were either ancestral Saxons or merged into the Saxons later, and they were one of the most prominent early Germanic seafarers,<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Haywood|1999|pp=15}}, ''Dark Age Naval Power''.</ref> entering recorded maritime history with a raid on Roman [[Gallia Belgica|Belgica]] in AD 41.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Haywood|1999|pp=21}}, ''Dark Age Naval Power''.</ref> Chaucian raiding was endemic in the [[English Channel|North Sea Channel]] until their last recorded raids c. 170&ndash;175.<ref name=Haywood28>{{Harvcolnb|Haywood|1999|pp=28}}, ''Dark Age Naval Power''.</ref> They lost their separate identity in the 3rd century,<ref name=Haywood28 /> after which time they were considered to be Saxons.

There was a sharp increase in the number and severity of raids along the British and Continental coasts beginning c. 250, much of it carried out by the [[Franks]], who would become the premier threat for the next 100 years.<ref name="Haywood 1999 39–40">{{Harvcolnb|Haywood|1999|pp=39–40}}, ''Dark Age Naval Power''.</ref> Beginning c. 280 the Franks were joined by the Saxons, and by c. 350 they would replace the Franks as the primary threat.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Haywood|1999|pp=63}}, ''Dark Age Naval Power''.</ref> Saxons would be the only recorded sea raiders in the [[North Sea]] between c. 376 and c. 450.<ref name=Haywood76>{{Harvcolnb|Haywood|1999|pp=76}}, ''Dark Age Naval Power''.</ref> The Saxons would continue raiding both Britain and the Continental coast until their settlement in Britain in the 5th century, after which time they would continue their raiding on the Continental coast until the 7th century using Britain as their base.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Haywood|1999|pp=84–87}}, ''Dark Age Naval Power''.</ref>

Little is known of Anglian and Jutish activities, as they are not mentioned by those names. The Angles were not recorded in contemporary sources until c. 550 (mentioned by [[Procopius]] in his ''History of the Wars''), while the Jutes are first mentioned by Bede in the 8th century.

===British political weakness===
{{Main|End of Roman rule in Britain}}
[[File:End.of.Roman.rule.in.Britain.383.410.jpg|thumb|230px|Romano-Britain and the significant events of the early 5th Century]]
The [[Roman Britain|Roman occupation of Britain]] had been largely focused on the commercially valuable south and east. This region became integrated into Roman society, governed by a Roman civil administration and laws, and became [[Romanization (cultural)|Romanised]] over time.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Jones|1990|pp=151}}; ''An Atlas of Roman Britain''. The degree of Romanisation was greatest in the southeast, becoming progressively less to the north and west, ending along a line approximately extending from the [[East Riding of Yorkshire]] to southeastern [[Wales]].</ref>

By the time Roman troops left this part of Britain for the last time in 407,<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Frere|1987|pp=357}}, ''Britannia''.</ref> the Romanised south and east were in a state of economic collapse,<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Wickham|2009|pp=151}}, ''The Inheritance of Rome''.</ref> accompanied by a de-Romanisation of the populace.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Wickham|2005|pp=47}}, ''Framing the Early Middle Ages'', Geography and Politics.</ref> ''[[Villa]]s'', the heart of agrarian Roman society,<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Wickham|2005|pp=259, 473}}; ''Framing the Early Middle Ages''.</ref> were being abandoned in large numbers.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Wickham|2005|pp=475}}, ''Framing the Early Middle Ages'', Rural Settlement and Village Societies.</ref> Coinage became progressively unavailable after 402, and soon disappeared altogether.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Snyder|1998|pp=134}}, ''Age of Tyrants''. New bronze issues stopped arriving after 402 and gold and silver finds dated later than 411 tend to be copies or counterfeit.</ref><ref>{{Harvcolnb|Higham|1992|pp=70}}, ''Rome, Britain and the Anglo-Saxons''. Higham notes that the provision of small change dwindled after 392 and stopped c. 402, with the supply of gold coins dying out within a decade.</ref> Roman-style towns, the centers of civil administration and commercial industries, went into a steep decline from which they did not recover. Industrial ceramic production ended and only the simplest means of market transfer remained in effect,<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Wickham|2005|pp=307}}; ''Framing the Early Middle Ages''.</ref> still existing as a cashless economy in the mid-5th century.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Snyder|2003|pp=102}}, ''The Britons''.</ref>

The west and north of Britain were relatively unaffected. The Roman occupation had been military rather than civil; and, as long as these Britons did not interfere with or threaten Roman interests, the Romans were content to leave them alone, allowing their tribal societies to continue as before, with their people never becoming Romanised.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Laing|1990|pp=112–113}}, ''Celtic Britain and Ireland'', The non-Romanized zone of Britannia.</ref><ref>{{Harvcolnb|Jones|1990|pp=151,154}}; ''An Atlas of Roman Britain''</ref><ref>{{Harvcolnb|Wickham|2005|pp=332}}; ''Framing the Early Middle Ages''.</ref> Roman troops left these areas in 383,<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Frere|1987|pp=354}}, ''Britannia'', The End of Roman Britain. Specifically, Frere refers to Wales, the western [[Pennines]], and the fortress at [[Deva Victrix|Deva]]; he then goes on to suggest that the same was true north of Hadrian's Wall, referring to the lands of the [[Damnonii]], [[Votadini]], and the [[Novantae]].</ref> at which time the tribes became independent again, as they had been before the Roman invasion.



Many historians decline to offer a numerical estimate of the number of migrants or their ultimate proportion of the total population, offering only qualitative estimates that state (usually without cited authority) that the proportion of Britons in the post-migration population was substantial, assertions that do not necessarily help in determining the number of migrants. These include [[Chris Wickham]] (''Framing the Early Middle Ages'', 2005),<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Wickham|2005|pp=303–382}}, ''Framing the Early Middle Ages'', "Political Breakdown and State-building in the North".</ref> D. P. Kirby (''The Earliest English Kings'', 2000),<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Kirby|2000|pp=13}}, ''The Earliest English Kings''.</ref> [[Barbara Yorke]] (''Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England'', 1990; ''Wessex in the Early Middle Ages'', 1995; ''The Conversion of Britain 600&ndash;800'', 2000), [[Chris Snyder]] (''An Age of Tyrants'', 1998)<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Snyder|1998|pp=252}}, ''An Age of Tyrants''.</ref> and [[Nicholas Higham]] (''Rome, Britain and the Anglo-Saxons'', 1992).<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Higham|1992|pp=209}}, ''Rome, Britain and the Anglo-Saxons''</ref>

For archaeologists such as [[Francis Pryor]], the key to understanding these questions is that culture in Britain evolved through the normal processes of migration and acculturation, rather than by a large proportion of the population being replaced or displaced by a massive influx of people from outside.<ref name="Pryor, Francis 2005">{{Harvcolnb|Pryor|2005}} Pryor, Francis. ''Britain AD: A Quest for Arthur, England and the Anglo-Saxons''. HarperCollins UK, 2009.</ref> This view is challenged by Heinrich Härke, among others, who think that a significant proportion of the total population (perhaps up to 200,000 people) settled in Britain in the 5th and 6th centuries.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Härke|2003|pp=13–28}} ''Population replacement or acculturation? An archaeological perspective on population and migration in post-Roman Britain''</ref>

===what was the relationship between the 'Romano-Britonnic' peoples and the 'Anglo-Saxons'?===
Some Scholars have re-evaluated the demographic issues and looked at the question of the number of migrants with an emphasis on genetic descent.<ref name="Thomas, Mark G. 2006"/> They argue that if a higher Anglo-Saxon component is currently present, this would mean the numbers of settlers was either overwhelming, or the immigrants reproduced faster than the local population and further ensure selective advantage. This theory suggests that the selective advantage would be strong (in the region of 10-20%) and lasted around 200–250 years. This selective advantage is not uncommon in migrant communities due to characteristics such as age, health and sometimes gender - a larger male population with the potential to have children with the indigenous population.




The archaeologists task in understanding evidence for migration and/or acculturation must first get to grips with early Anglo-Saxon archaeology as an "Archaeology of Identity". This term has been used recently when considering different aspects of archaeology that are best considered to together, such as: gender, age, ethnicity, religion and status. <ref>Díaz-Andreu, Margarita, and Sam Lucy. Archaeology of Identity. Routledge, 2005.</ref>

Catherine Hills points out that it is easy to consider Anglo-Saxon archaeology solely as study of ethnology and fail to consider that identity is: "less related to an overall Anglo-Saxon ethnicity and more to membership of family or tribe, Christian or pagan, elite or peasant". <ref>Hills, Catherine. "Overview: Anglo-Saxon identity." The Oxford Handbook of Anglo-Saxon Archaeology (2011):4</ref> Anglo-Saxons or Britons were no more homogenuous than people today and their would have exhibited a diverse characteristics: male/female, old/young, rich/poor, farmer/warrior, aswell as other diversity. Beyond these, their identity was local, although people would have known their neighbours, it may have been important to indicate tribal loyalty with details of clothing and especially fasteners.<ref>Hills, Catherine. "Overview: Anglo-Saxon identity." The Oxford Handbook of Anglo-Saxon Archaeology (2011): 3-12.</ref>

It is also unlikely that people would have thought of themselves as Anglo-Saxon, instead their were part of a tribe, region, descendants of a patron or followers of a leader. It is this identity that archaeological evidence seeks to understand and determine, considering how it might supports separate identity groups, or identities that were inter-connected.<ref>Brooks, Nicholas. "The formation of the Mercian Kingdom." The Origins of Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms (1989): 159-170.</ref>

Early Anglo-Saxon cemeteries have been studied by antiquarians and archaeologists since the middle of the nineteenth century (Lucy, 2000). One of the characteristics that makes these sites so attractive for investigation is the presence of different types of grave-goods; swords, spears, brooches, pins, buckles, and knives, which allow a few burials to be considered in great detail. As a result many archaeological studies have focused on this marterial culture to ask questions about the underlying organisation of early medieval society (Härke, 1992; Stoodly, 1999; Sayer, 2009). However, it is also necessary to understand the organisation of cemetery space because it is with this detailed contextual evidence that it might be possible to move beyond sites and objects to understand the lives past people led.


The scope of cemetery investigation has transformed with the introduction of statistical and computer analytical methodologies, but this type of analysis has not always been received positively and many excavators still rely on their ‘eye’ to understand patterns and divisions within funerary space.



The table 1 summarises the possibilities outlined by [[Robert Hedges]], building on work by [[Helena Hamerow]].<ref>Hedges, Robert. Anglo-Saxon migration and the molecular evidence. Eds. H. Hamerow, D. A. Hinton, and S. Crawford. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011.pp 81-83</ref>}}
The table 1 summarises the possibilities outlined by [[Robert Hedges]], building on work by [[Helena Hamerow]].<ref>Hedges, Robert. Anglo-Saxon migration and the molecular evidence. Eds. H. Hamerow, D. A. Hinton, and S. Crawford. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011.pp 81-83</ref>}}

Revision as of 10:22, 23 February 2014
Peter-in-the-Wall,Essex: A simple nave church of the early style c. 650 Brixworth, Northants: monastery founded by Sexwulf c. 800 Barnack, Peterborough: Towered church c. 970 - spire is later Sompting Church, Sussex: A Romanesque style church . c1050

The table 1 summarises the possibilities outlined by Robert Hedges, building on work by Helena Hamerow.[1]}} The number of 250,000 is also suggested by

Development of reflexives ✔ ✔ Rise of progressive ✔ ✔ Loss of external possessor ✔ ✔ Rise of periphrastic do ✔ ✔ Negative comparative particle ✔ Rise of pronoun -en ✔ Merger of /kw-/, /hw-/ at /χw-/ ✔ Rise of it clefts ✔ Rise of sentential answers and tagging ✔ Preservation of /θ ð/ ✔ Loss of front rounded vowels


Table 1:A number of shift features that were selected as representative by Richard Coates, Gary Miller and Raymond Hickey
Features Coates [a] Miller [b] Hickey [c]
Two functionally-distinct ‘to be’ verbs ✔ ✔ ✔
Northern Subject Rule ✔ ✔ ✔
Development of reflexives ✔ ✔
Rise of progressive ✔ ✔
Loss of external possessor ✔ ✔
Rise of the periphrastic "do" ✔ ✔
Negative comparative particle ✔
Rise of pronoun -en ✔
Merger of /kw-/, /hw-/ and /χw-/ ✔
Rise of "it" clefts ✔
Rise of sentential answers and tagging ✔
Preservation of θ and ð ✔
Loss of front rounded vowels ✔

(*)This could be the second phase, with building on a 100 years; a small force of 3000, with a rate of 3% (local wives, mainly men - same rate as modern day Palestine) would have become 38,437 by 540.

References

General

  • Channel 4 (2004), Britain AD: King Arthur's Britain{{citation}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Hills, Catherine (2003), Origins of the English, London: Duckworth, ISBN 0 7156 3191 8

[2]

Archaeology

Environment c. 250–500

History

Settlement legacy

The Anglo-Saxon settlement has had a profound influence on contemporary culture of Britain and elsewhere. Questions of English origin, themes in popular films and even the identity of many people worldwide seem still intrinstically linked to the question of what happened in Britain in the fifth and sixth Centuuries.

  • Enduring image of the invading barbarian
People to be saved from
Destroyers of Roman civilisation
  • Ethnicity
Germanic
Wars
  • Politics
Anglophone is Anglo-Saxon - imperial
Independence
  • Films
LOTR
GOT
  • How this period is taught and the continuing use of invasion in education and research
Primary Schools
Scholarly papers

Citations

  1. ^ Hedges, Robert. Anglo-Saxon migration and the molecular evidence. Eds. H. Hamerow, D. A. Hinton, and S. Crawford. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011.pp 81-83
  2. ^ Template:Cite isbn


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