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'''''Aphanizomenon flos-aquae''''' is a freshwater species of cyanobacteria. Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) are an ancient clade of bacterial [[microphyte]]s, part of the [[cyanobacteria]] phylum.
'''''Aphanizomenon flos-aquae''''' is a brackish and freshwater species of [[cyanobacteria]] found around the world, including the [[Baltic Sea]] and the [[Great Lakes]].


==Ecology==
⚫
''Aphanizomenon flos-aquae'' as a species has both toxic and nontoxic forms.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Jensen|first=Gitte S.|last2=Ginsberg|first2=Donald I.|last3=Drapeau|first3=Christian|title=Blue-Green Algae as an Immuno-Enhancer and Biomodulator|journal=Journal of the American Nutraceutical Association|year=2001|volume=3|issue=4|pages=24–30|url=http://www.ancientsuninc.com/BioModulatorImmunoEnhancer.pdf|accessdate=18 May 2012}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|reason=This is a paper printed in a (non-reliable?) now-defunct journal, now hosted by a nutraceutical manufacturer|date=May 2013}}<ref>{{cite journal|last=Carmichael|first=Wayne W.|title=The Toxins of Cyanobacteria|journal=Scientific American|date=January 1994|volume=270|issue=1|pages=78–86|issn=0036-8733|pmid=8284661|doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0194-78}}</ref> Most sources worldwide are toxic, containing both [[hepatotoxin|hepatic]] and neuro[[endotoxins]].<ref>Karina Preußela, Fastnera Jutta; Federal Environmental Agency, FG II 3.3, Corrensplatz 1, 14195 Berlin, Germany; Department of Limnology of Stratified Lakes, Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Alte Fischerhütte 2, 16775 Stechlin, Germany; 15 October 2005{{Verify source|what is this? a book, a journal article, an address?|date=February 2010}}</ref>
''Aphanizomenon flos-aquae'' can form dense surface aggregations in freshwater (known as "cyanobacterial blooms") <ref>{{cite web|title=Cyanobacteria/Cyanotoxins|url=http://www2.epa.gov/nutrient-policy-data/cyanobacteriacyanotoxins|publisher=[[US EPA]]|accessdate=23 Oct 2015}}</ref>. These blooms occur in areas of high [[nutrient loading]], historical or current.


==Sources==
==Toxicity==
⚫
''Aphanizomenon flos-aquae'' has both toxic and nontoxic forms.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Jensen|first=Gitte S.|last2=Ginsberg|first2=Donald I.|last3=Drapeau|first3=Christian|title=Blue-Green Algae as an Immuno-Enhancer and Biomodulator|journal=Journal of the American Nutraceutical Association|year=2001|volume=3|issue=4|pages=24–30|url=http://www.ancientsuninc.com/BioModulatorImmunoEnhancer.pdf|accessdate=18 May 2012}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|reason=This is a paper printed in a (non-reliable?) now-defunct journal, now hosted by a nutraceutical manufacturer|date=May 2013}}<ref>{{cite journal|last=Carmichael|first=Wayne W.|title=The Toxins of Cyanobacteria|journal=Scientific American|date=January 1994|volume=270|issue=1|pages=78–86|issn=0036-8733|pmid=8284661|doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0194-78}}</ref> Most sources worldwide are toxic, containing both [[hepatotoxin|hepatic]] and neuro[[endotoxins]].<ref>Karina Preußela, Fastnera Jutta; Federal Environmental Agency, FG II 3.3, Corrensplatz 1, 14195 Berlin, Germany; Department of Limnology of Stratified Lakes, Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Alte Fischerhütte 2, 16775 Stechlin, Germany; 15 October 2005{{Verify source|what is this? a book, a journal article, an address?|date=February 2010}}</ref>
''Aphanizomenon flos-aquae'' grows in many areas of the world.{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}} The biomass that accumulates every year in Klamath Lake is among the most abundant,{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}} although toxins have been identified in its yield.


Most cyanobacteria (including ''Aphanizomenon'') produce [[BMAA]], a [[neurotoxic|neurotoxin]] amino acid implicated in [[ALS]]/[[Parkinsonism]] <ref>{{cite journal | author = Cox, PA, Sacks, OW. | year = 2002 | title = Cycad neurotoxins, consumption of flying foxes, and ALS-PDC disease in Guam | journal = Neurology | volume = 58 | pages = 956–9 | doi=10.1212/wnl.58.6.956 | pmid=11914415 | issue=6}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal | author = Holtcamp W| year = 2012 | title = The Emerging Science of BMAA: Do Cyanobacteria Contribute to Neurodegenerative Disease? | journal = Environmental Health Perspectives| volume = 120| pages = 110–16 | doi=10.1289/ehp.120-a110| issue=3}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Jonasson S, Eriksson J, Berntzon L, Spácil Z, Ilag LL, Ronnevi LO, Rasmussen U, Bergman B.| year = 2010| title = Transfer of a cyanobacterial neurotoxin within a temperate aquatic ecosystem suggests pathways for human exposure| journal = Procedings of the Nationall Academy of Sciences| volume = 107| pages = 9252–7 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0914417107| issue=20}}</ref>.
⚫
===Klamath Lake===
⚫
{{Main|Upper Klamath Lake}}


⚫
Toxicity of ''A. flos-aquae'' has been reported in Canada,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Saker ML, Jungblut AD, Neilan BA, Rawn DF, Vasconcelos VM |title=Detection of microcystin synthetase genes in health food supplements containing the freshwater cyanobacterium Aphanizomenon flos-aquae |journal=Toxicon |volume=46 |issue=5 |pages=555–62 |date=October 2005 |pmid=16098554 |doi=10.1016/j.toxicon.2005.06.021}}</ref> Germany<ref>{{cite journal |author=Preussel K, Stüken A, Wiedner C, Chorus I, Fastner J |title=First report on cylindrospermopsin producing Aphanizomenon flos-aquae (Cyanobacteria) isolated from two German lakes |journal=Toxicon |volume=47 |issue=2 |pages=156–62 |date=February 2006 |pmid=16356522 |doi=10.1016/j.toxicon.2005.10.013}}</ref><ref>[http://kops.ub.uni-konstanz.de/bitstream/handle/urn:nbn:de:bsz:352-221238/heussner_221238.pdf?sequence=3 Toxin content and cytotoxicity of algal dietary supplements], by Dr. Alexandra H. Heussner</ref> and China.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Chen Y, Liu J, Yang W |title=Effect of Aphanizomenon flos-aquae toxins on some blood physiological parameters in mice |language=Chinese |journal=Wei Sheng Yan Jiu [Journal of Hygiene Research] |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=195–7 |date=May 2003 |pmid=12914277}}</ref>
⚫
'''Upper Klamath Lake''' (sometimes called '''Klamath Lake''') is a large, shallow [[freshwater]] [[lake]] east of the [[Cascade Range]] in south central [[Oregon]] in the [[United States]]. The largest freshwater body in Oregon, it is approximately 20&nbsp;mi (32&nbsp;km) long and 8&nbsp;mi (12.9&nbsp;km) wide and extends northwest from the city of [[Klamath Falls, Oregon|Klamath Falls]]. It sits at an elevation of 4140&nbsp;ft (1262 m).


⚫
''Aphanizomenon flos-aquae'' is known to produce [[endotoxins]], the toxic chemicals released when cells die. Once released ([[lysis|lysed]]), and ingested, these toxins can damage liver and nerve tissues in mammals. In areas where water quality is not closely monitored, the [[World Health Organization]] has assessed toxic algae as a health risk, citing the production of [[anatoxin-a]], [[saxitoxin]]s, and [[cylindrospermopsin]].<ref>{{cite book |author=World Health Organization |title=Guidelines for drinking-water quality. First addendum to third edition. Volume 1. Recommendations |publisher=World Health Organization |location=Geneva |year=2006 |isbn=978-92-4-154674-4 |url=http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/gdwq3rev/en/}}</ref> [[canidae|Dogs]] have been reported to have become ill or have fatal reactions after swimming in rivers and lakes containing toxic ''A. flos-aquae''.
⚫
The lake depth fluctuates due to regulation of its water supply, ranging from 8&nbsp;ft (2.5 m) to 60 f (18 m) deep at average levels. The lake level is kept within 1261 to 1264 m above sea level.<ref>[http://www.oregonlakes.org/gallery/klamath/klamath.html Klamath Lake<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> It is fed by several sources, including the [[Williamson River (Oregon)|Williamson River]] and is drained by the [[Link River]], which issues from the south end of the lake. It is connected by a short channel to the smaller [[Agency Lake]] to the north. The [[Klamath Basin National Wildlife Refuge Complex|Upper Klamath National Wildlife Refuge]] sits along the north edge of the lake.


⚫
[[Microcystin]] toxin has been found in all 16 samples of ''A. flos-aquae'' products sold as food supplements in Germany and Switzerland, originating from Lake Klamath: 10 of 16 samples exceeded the safety value of 1&nbsp;µg microcystin per gram.<ref>{{cite web|title=AFA-Algen – Giftcocktail oder Gesundheitsbrunnen?|trans_title=AFA algae - toxic cocktail fountain or health?|url=http://www.uni-konstanz.de/news/mittshow.php?nr=12&jj=2008|publisher=Universität Konstanz|accessdate=18 May 2012|archiveurl=http://translate.google.com/translate?sl=auto&tl=en&js=n&prev=_t&hl=en&ie=UTF-8&layout=2&eotf=1&u=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20080501124225%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.uni-konstanz.de%2Fnews%2Fmittshow.php%3Fnr%3D12%26jj%3D2008|archivedate=1 May 2008|type=Translated from German}}</ref> University professor Daniel Dietrich warned parents not to let children consume ''A. flos-aquae'' products, since children are even more vulnerable to toxic effects, due to lower body weight, and the continuous intake might lead to accumulation of toxins. Dietrich also warned against quackery schemes selling these cyanobacteria as medicine against illnesses such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, causing people to omit their regular drugs.
⚫
Upper Klamath Lake is located in the high desert southernmost part of the state of Oregon. The lake is protected to the northwest by the Cascade Mountains with an arid sagebrush steppe to the east and south. The lake is fed by 17 mineral-rich rivers that deposit an average of 50,000 tons of mineral-rich silt from the surrounding {{convert|4000|sqmi|km2|adj=on}} volcanic basin, making Upper Klamath Lake one of the richest nutrient traps in the world.{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}} The lake waters and its sediments have a high mineral and trace element concentration due to a prehistoric volcanic eruption event (more than 7700y/A).{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}} The event covered the area with millions of tons of mineral ash as far north as the Canadian border. The regions volcanic legacy is associated with the [[Pacific Ring of Fire]],{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}} a geologically active region that experiences large-scale [[volcanism|volcanic]], [[plate tectonics|tectonic]], and [[glaciation|glacial]] events.


==Medical research==
====''A. flos-aquae'' in Klamath Lake====
During harvest season, it uses the available nitrogen, creating a massive bloom, choking out competing blooms, so the water's microphyte volume is nearly 100% ''A. flos-aquae''.{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}}
The lake receives an average 300 days of sunlight per year, which provides a perfect growing environment for this cyanobacterium.{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}} The nutrient solution, in the favorable alkalinity of the lake water, provides more than 60 times the nutrients needed for the bloom.{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}}
⚫
The massive blooms of ''A. flos-aquae'' in Upper Klamath Lake affect the dynamics of the system significantly. In many years the blooms crash during the summer. The subsequent decomposition of the massive amounts of organic matter can deplete the water column of dissolved oxygen producing severely impaired conditions for fish species, including redband trout (''Oncorhynchus mykiss'') and two endangered species of suckers, the [[Lost River sucker]] (''Deltistes luxatus'') and [[shortnose sucker]] (''Chasmistes brevirostris''). This decomposition also releases previously unavailable nitrogen into the water, often fueling rapid growth of the cyanobacterium ''[[Microcystis aeruginosa]]'', which is known to produce the hepatotoxin [[microcystin]]. It is widely believed that these dynamics are a central factor in the lack of recruitment of the two endangered sucker species, thereby contributing to their continued decline.

==Research==
{{Refimprove section|date=July 2011}}
{{Refimprove section|date=July 2011}}


Recently{{When|date=July 2011}} the first stage of an extensive research project carried out at the Royal Victoria Hospital in Montreal, Canada,{{citation needed|date=June 2012}} studying the effect of ''A. flos-aquae'' on the immune and [[endocrine system]]s, as well as on general blood physiology, found that eating it had a profound effect on [[natural killer cell]]s (NKCs).<ref>Effects of the Blue Green Algae Aphanizomenon flos-aquae on Human Natural Killer Cells. — Chapter 3.1 of the IBC Library Series, Volume 1911, Phytoceuticals: Examining the health benefit and pharmaceutical properties of natural antioxidants and phytochemicals</ref> ''A. flos-aquae'' triggers the movement of 40% of the circulating NKCs from the blood to tissues.
A Canadian study studying the effect of ''A. flos-aquae'' on the immune and [[endocrine system]]s, as well as on general blood physiology, found that eating it had a profound effect on [[natural killer cell]]s (NKCs).<ref>Effects of the Blue Green Algae Aphanizomenon flos-aquae on Human Natural Killer Cells. — Chapter 3.1 of the IBC Library Series, Volume 1911, Phytoceuticals: Examining the health benefit and pharmaceutical properties of natural antioxidants and phytochemicals</ref> ''A. flos-aquae'' triggers the movement of 40% of the circulating NKCs from the blood to tissues.

==Toxic forms==
⚫
Toxicity of ''A. flos-aquae'' has been reported in Canada,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Saker ML, Jungblut AD, Neilan BA, Rawn DF, Vasconcelos VM |title=Detection of microcystin synthetase genes in health food supplements containing the freshwater cyanobacterium Aphanizomenon flos-aquae |journal=Toxicon |volume=46 |issue=5 |pages=555–62 |date=October 2005 |pmid=16098554 |doi=10.1016/j.toxicon.2005.06.021}}</ref> Germany<ref>{{cite journal |author=Preussel K, Stüken A, Wiedner C, Chorus I, Fastner J |title=First report on cylindrospermopsin producing Aphanizomenon flos-aquae (Cyanobacteria) isolated from two German lakes |journal=Toxicon |volume=47 |issue=2 |pages=156–62 |date=February 2006 |pmid=16356522 |doi=10.1016/j.toxicon.2005.10.013}}</ref><ref>[http://kops.ub.uni-konstanz.de/bitstream/handle/urn:nbn:de:bsz:352-221238/heussner_221238.pdf?sequence=3 Toxin content and cytotoxicity of algal dietary supplements], by Dr. Alexandra H. Heussner</ref> and China.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Chen Y, Liu J, Yang W |title=Effect of Aphanizomenon flos-aquae toxins on some blood physiological parameters in mice |language=Chinese |journal=Wei Sheng Yan Jiu [Journal of Hygiene Research] |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=195–7 |date=May 2003 |pmid=12914277}}</ref>

⚫
''Aphanizomenon flos-aquae'' is known to produce endotoxins, the toxic chemicals released when cells die. Once released ([[lysis|lysed]]), and ingested, these toxins can damage liver and nerve tissues in mammals. In areas where water quality is not closely monitored, the [[World Health Organization]] has assessed toxic algae as a health risk, citing the production of [[anatoxin-a]], [[saxitoxin]]s, and [[cylindrospermopsin]].<ref>{{cite book |author=World Health Organization |title=Guidelines for drinking-water quality. First addendum to third edition. Volume 1. Recommendations |publisher=World Health Organization |location=Geneva |year=2006 |isbn=978-92-4-154674-4 |url=http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/gdwq3rev/en/}}</ref> [[canidae|Dogs]] have been reported to have become ill or have fatal reactions after swimming in rivers and lakes containing toxic ''A. flos-aquae''. Reactions are most likely due to consumption of the bacteria rather than exposure to the skin. This AFA needs proper harvesting and careful manufacturing for it to be safe.

⚫
[[Microcystin]] toxin has been found in all 16 samples of ''A. flos-aquae'' products sold as food supplements in Germany and Switzerland, originating from Lake Klamath: 10 of 16 samples exceeded the safety value of 1&nbsp;µg microcystin per gram.<ref>{{cite web|title=AFA-Algen – Giftcocktail oder Gesundheitsbrunnen?|trans_title=AFA algae - toxic cocktail fountain or health?|url=http://www.uni-konstanz.de/news/mittshow.php?nr=12&jj=2008|publisher=Universität Konstanz|accessdate=18 May 2012|archiveurl=http://translate.google.com/translate?sl=auto&tl=en&js=n&prev=_t&hl=en&ie=UTF-8&layout=2&eotf=1&u=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20080501124225%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.uni-konstanz.de%2Fnews%2Fmittshow.php%3Fnr%3D12%26jj%3D2008|archivedate=1 May 2008|type=Translated from German}}</ref> University professor Daniel Dietrich warned parents not to let children consume ''A. flos-aquae'' products, since children are even more vulnerable to toxic effects, due to lower body weight, and the continuous intake might lead to accumulation of toxins. Dietrich also warned against quackery schemes selling these cyanobacteria as medicine against illnesses such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, causing people to omit their regular drugs.


==As a food supplement==
==As a food supplement==
Line 50: Line 38:


Some compressed tablets of powdered ''A. flos-aquae'' cyanobacteria (named as "blue green algae") have been sold as food supplements, notably those filtered from [[Upper Klamath Lake]] in Oregon.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Spolaore P, Joannis-Cassan C, Duran E, Isambert A |title=Commercial applications of microalgae |journal=Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering |volume=101 |issue=2 |pages=87–96 |date=February 2006 |pmid=16569602 |doi=10.1263/jbb.101.87}}</ref>
Some compressed tablets of powdered ''A. flos-aquae'' cyanobacteria (named as "blue green algae") have been sold as food supplements, notably those filtered from [[Upper Klamath Lake]] in Oregon.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Spolaore P, Joannis-Cassan C, Duran E, Isambert A |title=Commercial applications of microalgae |journal=Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering |volume=101 |issue=2 |pages=87–96 |date=February 2006 |pmid=16569602 |doi=10.1263/jbb.101.87}}</ref>

⚫
===Klamath Lake===
⚫
{{Main|Upper Klamath Lake}}
{{split}}
⚫
'''Upper Klamath Lake''' (sometimes called '''Klamath Lake''') is a large, shallow [[freshwater]] [[lake]] east of the [[Cascade Range]] in south central [[Oregon]] in the [[United States]]. The largest freshwater body in Oregon, it is approximately 20&nbsp;mi (32&nbsp;km) long and 8&nbsp;mi (12.9&nbsp;km) wide and extends northwest from the city of [[Klamath Falls, Oregon|Klamath Falls]]. It sits at an elevation of 4140&nbsp;ft (1262 m).

⚫
The lake depth fluctuates due to regulation of its water supply, ranging from 8&nbsp;ft (2.5 m) to 60 f (18 m) deep at average levels. The lake level is kept within 1261 to 1264 m above sea level.<ref>[http://www.oregonlakes.org/gallery/klamath/klamath.html Klamath Lake<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> It is fed by several sources, including the [[Williamson River (Oregon)|Williamson River]] and is drained by the [[Link River]], which issues from the south end of the lake. It is connected by a short channel to the smaller [[Agency Lake]] to the north. The [[Klamath Basin National Wildlife Refuge Complex|Upper Klamath National Wildlife Refuge]] sits along the north edge of the lake.

⚫
Upper Klamath Lake is located in the high desert southernmost part of the state of Oregon. The lake is protected to the northwest by the Cascade Mountains with an arid sagebrush steppe to the east and south. The lake is fed by 17 rivers that deposit an average of 50,000 tons of mineral-rich silt from the surrounding {{convert|4000|sqmi|km2|adj=on}} volcanic basin, making Upper Klamath Lake one of the richest nutrient traps in the world.{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}} The lake waters and its sediments have a high trace element concentration due to a prehistoric volcanic eruption event (more than 7700y/A).{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}} The event covered the area with millions of tons of mineral ash as far north as the Canadian border. The regions volcanic legacy is associated with the [[Pacific Ring of Fire]],{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}} a geologically active region that experiences large-scale [[volcanism|volcanic]], [[plate tectonics|tectonic]], and [[glaciation|glacial]] events.

⚫
The massive blooms of ''A. flos-aquae'' in Upper Klamath Lake affect the dynamics of the system significantly. In many years the blooms crash during the summer. The subsequent decomposition of the massive amounts of organic matter can deplete the water column of dissolved oxygen producing severely impaired conditions for fish species, including redband trout (''Oncorhynchus mykiss'') and two endangered species of suckers, the [[Lost River sucker]] (''Deltistes luxatus'') and [[shortnose sucker]] (''Chasmistes brevirostris''). This decomposition also releases previously unavailable nitrogen into the water, often fueling rapid growth of the cyanobacterium ''[[Microcystis aeruginosa]]'', which is known to produce the hepatotoxin [[microcystin]]. It is widely believed that these dynamics are a central factor in the lack of recruitment of the two endangered sucker species, thereby contributing to their continued decline.


==See also==
==See also==
*[[Aphanizomenon]]
*[[Cyanobacteria]]
*[[Spirulina (dietary supplement)]]
*[[Spirulina (dietary supplement)]]


Revision as of 23:54, 25 October 2015

Aphanizomenon flos-aquae
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Bacteria
Phylum:
Cyanobacteria
Class:
Cyanophyceae
Order:
Nostocales
Family:
Nostocaceae
Genus:
Aphanizomenon
Species

Aphanizomenon flos-aquae

Aphanizomenon flos-aquae is a brackish and freshwater species of cyanobacteria found around the world, including the Baltic Sea and the Great Lakes.

Ecology

Aphanizomenon flos-aquae can form dense surface aggregations in freshwater (known as "cyanobacterial blooms") [1]. These blooms occur in areas of high nutrient loading, historical or current.

Toxicity

Aphanizomenon flos-aquae has both toxic and nontoxic forms.[2][unreliable source?][3] Most sources worldwide are toxic, containing both hepatic and neuroendotoxins.[4]

Most cyanobacteria (including Aphanizomenon) produce BMAA, a neurotoxin amino acid implicated in ALS/Parkinsonism [5] [6][7].

Toxicity of A. flos-aquae has been reported in Canada,[8] Germany[9][10] and China.[11]

Aphanizomenon flos-aquae is known to produce endotoxins, the toxic chemicals released when cells die. Once released (lysed), and ingested, these toxins can damage liver and nerve tissues in mammals. In areas where water quality is not closely monitored, the World Health Organization has assessed toxic algae as a health risk, citing the production of anatoxin-a, saxitoxins, and cylindrospermopsin.[12] Dogs have been reported to have become ill or have fatal reactions after swimming in rivers and lakes containing toxic A. flos-aquae.

Microcystin toxin has been found in all 16 samples of A. flos-aquae products sold as food supplements in Germany and Switzerland, originating from Lake Klamath: 10 of 16 samples exceeded the safety value of 1 µg microcystin per gram.[13] University professor Daniel Dietrich warned parents not to let children consume A. flos-aquae products, since children are even more vulnerable to toxic effects, due to lower body weight, and the continuous intake might lead to accumulation of toxins. Dietrich also warned against quackery schemes selling these cyanobacteria as medicine against illnesses such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, causing people to omit their regular drugs.

Medical research

A Canadian study studying the effect of A. flos-aquae on the immune and endocrine systems, as well as on general blood physiology, found that eating it had a profound effect on natural killer cells (NKCs).[14] A. flos-aquae triggers the movement of 40% of the circulating NKCs from the blood to tissues.

As a food supplement

Main article: Aphanizomenon flos-aquae (dietary supplement)

Some compressed tablets of powdered A. flos-aquae cyanobacteria (named as "blue green algae") have been sold as food supplements, notably those filtered from Upper Klamath Lake in Oregon.[15]

Klamath Lake

Main article: Upper Klamath Lake

Upper Klamath Lake (sometimes called Klamath Lake) is a large, shallow freshwater lake east of the Cascade Range in south central Oregon in the United States. The largest freshwater body in Oregon, it is approximately 20 mi (32 km) long and 8 mi (12.9 km) wide and extends northwest from the city of Klamath Falls. It sits at an elevation of 4140 ft (1262 m).

The lake depth fluctuates due to regulation of its water supply, ranging from 8 ft (2.5 m) to 60 f (18 m) deep at average levels. The lake level is kept within 1261 to 1264 m above sea level.[16] It is fed by several sources, including the Williamson River and is drained by the Link River, which issues from the south end of the lake. It is connected by a short channel to the smaller Agency Lake to the north. The Upper Klamath National Wildlife Refuge sits along the north edge of the lake.

Upper Klamath Lake is located in the high desert southernmost part of the state of Oregon. The lake is protected to the northwest by the Cascade Mountains with an arid sagebrush steppe to the east and south. The lake is fed by 17 rivers that deposit an average of 50,000 tons of mineral-rich silt from the surrounding 4,000-square-mile (10,000 km2) volcanic basin, making Upper Klamath Lake one of the richest nutrient traps in the world.[citation needed] The lake waters and its sediments have a high trace element concentration due to a prehistoric volcanic eruption event (more than 7700y/A).[citation needed] The event covered the area with millions of tons of mineral ash as far north as the Canadian border. The regions volcanic legacy is associated with the Pacific Ring of Fire,[citation needed] a geologically active region that experiences large-scale volcanic, tectonic, and glacial events.

The massive blooms of A. flos-aquae in Upper Klamath Lake affect the dynamics of the system significantly. In many years the blooms crash during the summer. The subsequent decomposition of the massive amounts of organic matter can deplete the water column of dissolved oxygen producing severely impaired conditions for fish species, including redband trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and two endangered species of suckers, the Lost River sucker (Deltistes luxatus) and shortnose sucker (Chasmistes brevirostris). This decomposition also releases previously unavailable nitrogen into the water, often fueling rapid growth of the cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa, which is known to produce the hepatotoxin microcystin. It is widely believed that these dynamics are a central factor in the lack of recruitment of the two endangered sucker species, thereby contributing to their continued decline.

See also

References

  1. ^ "Cyanobacteria/Cyanotoxins". US EPA. Retrieved 23 October 2015.
  2. ^ Jensen, Gitte S.; Ginsberg, Donald I.; Drapeau, Christian (2001). "Blue-Green Algae as an Immuno-Enhancer and Biomodulator" (PDF). Journal of the American Nutraceutical Association. 3 (4): 24–30. Retrieved 18 May 2012.
  3. ^ Carmichael, Wayne W. (January 1994). "The Toxins of Cyanobacteria". Scientific American. 270 (1): 78–86. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0194-78. ISSN 0036-8733. PMID 8284661.
  4. ^ Karina Preußela, Fastnera Jutta; Federal Environmental Agency, FG II 3.3, Corrensplatz 1, 14195 Berlin, Germany; Department of Limnology of Stratified Lakes, Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Alte Fischerhütte 2, 16775 Stechlin, Germany; 15 October 2005[verification needed]
  5. ^ Cox, PA, Sacks, OW. (2002). "Cycad neurotoxins, consumption of flying foxes, and ALS-PDC disease in Guam". Neurology. 58 (6): 956–9. doi:10.1212/wnl.58.6.956. PMID 11914415.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ^ Holtcamp W (2012). "The Emerging Science of BMAA: Do Cyanobacteria Contribute to Neurodegenerative Disease?". Environmental Health Perspectives. 120 (3): 110–16. doi:10.1289/ehp.120-a110.
  7. ^ Jonasson S, Eriksson J, Berntzon L, Spácil Z, Ilag LL, Ronnevi LO, Rasmussen U, Bergman B. (2010). "Transfer of a cyanobacterial neurotoxin within a temperate aquatic ecosystem suggests pathways for human exposure". Procedings of the Nationall Academy of Sciences. 107 (20): 9252–7. doi:10.1073/pnas.0914417107.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  8. ^ Saker ML, Jungblut AD, Neilan BA, Rawn DF, Vasconcelos VM (October 2005). "Detection of microcystin synthetase genes in health food supplements containing the freshwater cyanobacterium Aphanizomenon flos-aquae". Toxicon. 46 (5): 555–62. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2005.06.021. PMID 16098554.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  9. ^ Preussel K, Stüken A, Wiedner C, Chorus I, Fastner J (February 2006). "First report on cylindrospermopsin producing Aphanizomenon flos-aquae (Cyanobacteria) isolated from two German lakes". Toxicon. 47 (2): 156–62. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2005.10.013. PMID 16356522.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. ^ Toxin content and cytotoxicity of algal dietary supplements, by Dr. Alexandra H. Heussner
  11. ^ Chen Y, Liu J, Yang W (May 2003). "Effect of Aphanizomenon flos-aquae toxins on some blood physiological parameters in mice". Wei Sheng Yan Jiu [Journal of Hygiene Research] (in Chinese). 32 (3): 195–7. PMID 12914277.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  12. ^ World Health Organization (2006). Guidelines for drinking-water quality. First addendum to third edition. Volume 1. Recommendations. Geneva: World Health Organization. ISBN 978-92-4-154674-4.
  13. ^ "AFA-Algen – Giftcocktail oder Gesundheitsbrunnen?" (Translated from German). Universität Konstanz. Archived from the original on 1 May 2008. Retrieved 18 May 2012. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  14. ^ Effects of the Blue Green Algae Aphanizomenon flos-aquae on Human Natural Killer Cells. — Chapter 3.1 of the IBC Library Series, Volume 1911, Phytoceuticals: Examining the health benefit and pharmaceutical properties of natural antioxidants and phytochemicals
  15. ^ Spolaore P, Joannis-Cassan C, Duran E, Isambert A (February 2006). "Commercial applications of microalgae". Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering. 101 (2): 87–96. doi:10.1263/jbb.101.87. PMID 16569602.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  16. ^ Klamath Lake

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