Critical depth

This article is about the Oceanography term. For the video game, see Critical Depth (video game).

In biological oceanography, 'Critical Depth' is defined as a hypothesized surface mixing depth at which phytoplankton growth is precisely matched by losses of phytoplankton biomass within this depth interval. This concept is useful for understanding the initiation of phytoplankton blooms.

History

Critical depth as an aspect of biological oceanography was introduced in 1935 by Gran and Braarud. It became prominent in 1953 when Harald Sverdrup published the "Critical Depth Hypothesis" based on observations he had made in the North Atlantic on the Weather Ship 'M'. He theorized that spring phytoplankton blooms are triggered when the mixed layer depth becomes shallower than the critical depth. Since 1953, further investigation and research has been conducted to better define the critical depth and its role in initiating spring phytoplankton blooms. Recent analysis of satellite data suggest that the theory does not explain all spring blooms, particularly the North Atlantic spring bloom. Several papers have appeared recently that suggest a different relationship between the mixed layer depth and spring bloom timing.

Definition

Sverdrup defines the critical depth at which integrated photosynthesis equals integrated respiration. This can also be described as the depth at which the integral of net growth rate over the water column becomes zero. The net growth rate equals the gross photosynthetic rate minus loss terms. Gross photosynthesis exponentially decays from a maximum near the surface to approach zero with depth. It is affected by the amount and angle of solar radiation and the clarity of the water. The loss rate is the sum of cellular respiration, grazing, sinking, advection, viral lysis, and mortality. In his hypothesis, Sverdrup made the approximation that the loss rate for a phytoplankton community is constant at all depths and times.

The depth where the net growth rate is zero is referred to as the compensation depth (only 0.1-1% of solar radiation penetrates). Above this depth the population is growing, while below it the population shrinks. At a certain depth below it, the total population losses equal the total population gains. This is the critical depth.

Critical Depth Hypothesis

Assumptions

Sverdrup’s Critical Depth Hypothesis and model is built on several strict assumptions:

• Phytoplankton loss rate is independent of depth and of growth rate.
• Daily photosynthetic production of the phytoplankton community at any depth is proportional to the mean daily light energy at that depth. In another word, light is assumed to the only factor that limits the growth of phytoplankton during pre-bloom months and the light a phytoplankton community is subject to is determined by the incident irradiance and the coefficient of light extinction.
• Turbulence in the thoroughly mixed top layer is strong enough to distribute the phytoplankton evenly, resulting in phytoplankton experience the average irradiance within the mixed layer over the course of a day in the pre-bloom months.

Mechanism

Sverdrup’s research results suggested that the shoaling of the mixed layer depth to a depth above the critical depth was the cause of spring blooms. When the mixed layer depth exceeds the critical depth, mixing of the water brings so much of the phytoplankton population below the compensation depth where photosynthesis is impossible that the overall population cannot increase in biomass. However, when the mixed layer becomes shallower than the critical depth, enough of the phytoplankton remain above the compensation depth to give the community a positive net growth rate. Sverdrup’s model is a cause and effect relationship between the depth of the mixed layer versus the critical depth and the bloom of phytoplankton.

This trigger occurs in the spring due to seasonal changes in the critical depth and mixed layer depth. The critical depth deepens in the spring because of the increased amount of solar radiation and the decrease in the angle it hits the earth. During the winter, strong winds and storms vigorously mix the water, leaving a thick mixed layer to bring up nutrient-rich waters from depth. As the average winds decrease from the winter storms and the ocean is heated, the vertical water column becomes increasingly stratified and the mixed layer depth decreases.

Sverdrup’s Critical Depth Hypothesis is limited to explaining what initiates a spring bloom. It does not predict its magnitude. Additionally, it does not address any population controls after the initial bloom, such as nutrient limitation or predator-prey interaction with zooplankton.

Regional Applicability

Since 1953, scientists have examined the applicability of Sverdrup's Critical Depth (SCD hereafter) theory in different regions around the world. Semina (1960) found that SCD hypothesis does not apply well in the Bering Sea near Kamchatka, where the bloom is more limited by stability, nutrients, and grazing than by light. Obata et al.(1996) concluded that SCD theory works well at middle and high latitudes of the western North Pacific and the North Atlantic, but it is not able to explain how the spring bloom occurs in the eastern North Pacific and the Southern Ocean. Siegel et al. (2002) deduced that eastern North Atlantic Basin south of 40°N is likely limited by nutrients rather than light and hence is another region where SCD hypothesis would not be well applied. Behrenfeld (2010) also reported that SCD doesn’t apply well in Subarctic Atlantic regions. It should be noted that most research used hydrographically defined mixed layer depth, which is not a good proxy for turbulence-driven movement of the phytoplankton and hence might not properly test the applicability of SCD hypothesis, as argued in Franks (2014). The variable regional applicability of SCD has motivated researchers to find alternate biological and physical mechanisms for spring boom initiation in addition to the mechanism proposed by Sverdrup.

Criticisms

The main criticisms of Sverdrup's hypothesis result from its assumptions. One of the greatest limitations to understanding the cycle of spring phytoplankton blooms is the assumption that loss rates of phytoplankton in the vertical water column are constant. As more becomes known about phytoplankton loss rate components (such as grazing, respiration, and vertical export of sinking particles), Sverdrup’s hypothesis has come under increasing criticism. Smetacek and Passow published a paper in 1990 that challenged the model on the basis that phytoplankton cellular respiration is not constant, but is a function of growth rate, depth, and other factors. They claimed that net growth depended on irradiation, species physiology, grazing, and parasitic pressures in addition to mixed layer depth. They also point out that Sverdrup’s model included respiration of the entire community (including zooplankton) rather than solely photosynthetic organisms.

Sverdrup himself offered criticism of his model when he stated that "a phytoplankton population may increase independently of the thickness of the mixed layer if the turbulence is moderate." He also said that advection rather than local growth could be responsible for the bloom he observed, and that the first increase in plankton biomass occurred before the shoaling of the mixed layer, hinting to more complex processes initiating the spring bloom.

Although Sverdrup pointed out that there is a difference between the uniform-density mixed layer and the turbulent mixing layer in his original paper, he did not have the resources to explore how the intensity of turbulence could impact spring blooms. In 1999, using a numerical model, Huisman et al. formulated a "critical turbulence" hypothesis, based on the idea that spring blooms can occur even in deep mixed layers as long as turbulence stays below a critical value so that phytoplankton have enough time in the euphotic zone to absorb light.

Current Considerations

Despite criticism of Sverdrup's Critical Depth Hypothesis, it is still regularly cited due to many unresolved questions surrounding the initiation of spring blooms. Since its introduction, Sverdrup’s hypothesis has provided a framework for future research, facilitating a wide range of studies that both support its validity and question its assumptions. With the advancement of interdisciplinary knowledge and technological capabilities, it has become easier to expand on Sverdrup’s basic theory for critical depth using methods that were not available at the time of its original publication.

Many studies seek to address the shortcomings of the theory by using modern experimental and modeling approaches to explain how various biological and physical processes affect the initiation of the spring bloom in addition to critical depth. This has led to several theories describing mechanisms for the spring bloom initiation that add complexity to Sverdup’s original theory. Theories involving the role of grazing, nutrient availability, and upper ocean physics are active areas of research on spring blooms.

Dilution Recoupling Hypothesis

Michael Behrenfeld proposes the "Dilution Recoupling Hypothesis" to describe the occurrence of annual spring blooms. He emphasized that phytoplankton growth is balanced by losses, and the balance is controlled by seasonally varying physical processes. He argued that the occurrence of optimum growth conditions allows for both the growth of predator and prey, which results in increased interactions between the two; it recouples predator-prey interactions. He describes this relationship as being diluted (fewer interactions) in the winter, when the mixed layer is deep and stratification of the water column is minimal. Similar observations were described by Landry and Hassett (1982). The most prominent evidence supporting Behrenfeld's hypothesis is that phytoplankton blooms occur before optimal growth conditions as predicted by mixed depth shoaling, when the phytoplankton concentrations are more diluted. As stratification is established and the biomass of zooplankton increases, grazing increases and the phytoplankton biomass declines over time. Behrenfeld’s research also modeled respiration as being inversely proportional to phytoplankton growth (as growth rate decreases, respiration rate increases). Behrenfeld’s model proposes the opposite relationship of phytoplankton growth rate to mixed layer depth than Sverdrup’s: that it is maximized when the layer is deepest and phytoplankton most diluted.

Stratification Onset Hypothesis

Stephen Chiswell proposed the "Stratification Onset Hypothesis" to describe both the annual cycle of primary production and the occurrence of annual spring blooms in temperate waters. Chiswell shows that the observations made by Behrenfeld can be interpreted in a way that adheres to the conventional idea that the spring bloom represents a change from a deep-mixed regime to a shallow light-driven regime. Chiswell shows that the Critical Depth Hypothesis is flawed because its basic assumption that phytoplankton are well mixed throughout the upper mixed layer is wrong. Instead, Chiswell suggests that plankton are well mixed throughout the upper mixed layer only in autumn and winter, but in spring shallow near-surface warm layers appear with the onset of stratification. These layers support the spring bloom. In his Stratification Onset Hypothesis, Chiswell discusses two hypothetical oceans. One ocean is similar to that discussed by Behrenfeld, where total water column production can be positive in winter, but the second hypothetical ocean is one where net production in winter is negative. Chiswell thus suggests that the mechanisms of the Dilution Recoupling Hypothesis are incidental, rather than a cause of the spring bloom.

Shutdown of Turbulent Convection Hypothesis

John Taylor and Raffaele Ferrari propose that the spring bloom forms because of the shutdown of vertical mixing in the spring. This shutdown allows restratification to occur Taylor and Ferrari suggest that during periods of strong forcing (i.e., winter), the mixed layer depth is likely to be a good proxy for the mixing depth. However, when the atmospheric forcing becomes weak in the spring, turbulence subsides rapidly while the mixed layer depth does not change much. Shoaling of deep mixed layers is the result of restratification which occurs on timescales of weeks to months. Therefore, the onset of the bloom can occur significantly prior to the time when the mixed layer restratifies beyond the critical depth.

Physiological considerations

In addition to environmental factors, recent studies have also examined the role of individual phytoplankton traits that may lead to the initiation of the spring bloom. Models have suggested that these variable, cell-specific parameters, previously fixed by Sverdrup, could play an important role in predicting the onset of a bloom. Some of these factors might include:

• Growth rate
• Cell size
• Photoadaptation to low light conditions
• Composition of photosynthetic pigments
• Respiration rate for a given environment
• Sinking rate
• Grazing resistance
• Viral infection rate
• Life history
• Maintenance metabolism cost
• Nutrient uptake kinetics
• Cost of biosynthesis

Given the high spatial and temporal variability of their physical environment, certain phytoplankton species might possess an optimal fitness profile for a given pre-bloom environment over competitors. This physiological profile might also influence its pre-bloom growth rate. For this reason, Lewandowska et al propose that each phytoplankton has a specific critical depth. If none of the constituent pre-bloom species meet the environmental requirements, no bloom will occur.