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[[File:Hadrians Wall map.svg|thumb|right|Location of Hadrian's Wall and the [[Antonine Wall]]]]
{{RomanMilitary}}
'''Hadrian's Wall''' ({{lang-la|Vallum Aelium}}), also called the Roman Wall, [[Picts]]' Wall, or ''Vallum Hadriani'' in Latin, was a defensive fortification in the [[Roman province]] of [[Roman Britain|Britannia]], begun in AD 122 in the reign of the emperor [[Hadrian]]. It ran from the banks of the [[River Tyne, England|River Tyne]] near the North Sea to the [[Solway Firth]] on the [[Irish Sea]], and was the northern limit of the [[Roman Empire]], immediately north of which were the lands of the northern [[Ancient Britons]], including the [[Picts]].

It had a stone base and a stone wall. There were [[milecastle]]s with two [[Turret (Hadrian's Wall)|turrets]] in between. There was a fort about every five [[Mile#Roman mile|Roman miles]]. From north to south, the wall comprised a ditch, wall, military way and [[Vallum (Hadrian's Wall)|vallum]], another ditch with adjoining mounds. It is thought the milecastles were staffed with static [[garrison]]s, whereas the forts had fighting garrisons of infantry and cavalry. In addition to the wall's defensive military role, its gates may have been [[customs]] posts.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/9558984/Brian-Dobson.html|title=obituary:Brian Dobson|publisher=Daily Telegraph|date=21 September 2012|accessdate=22 September 2012}}</ref>

A significant portion of the wall still stands and can be followed on foot along the adjoining [[Hadrian's Wall Path]]. The largest Roman artefact anywhere, it runs a total of {{convert|73|mi|1|abbr=off}} in [[northern England]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Hadrian's Wall: A horde of ancient treasures make for a compelling new Cumbrian exhibition|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/hadrians-wall-a-horde-of-ancient-treasures-make-for-a-compelling-new-cumbrian-exhibition-2301329.html|agency=The Independent|date=8 November 2016}}</ref> Regarded as a [[Culture of the United Kingdom|British cultural icon]], Hadrian's Wall is one of Britain's major ancient tourist attractions.<ref>{{cite news|title=More than 25,000 people see Hadrian's Wall lit up|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/8571921.stm|agency=BBC|date=8 November 2016}}</ref> It was designated as a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]] in 1987.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20040722025655/http://accessibility.english-heritage.org.uk/default.asp?wci=Node&wce=8410]</ref> In comparison, the [[Antonine Wall|Antonine wall]], thought by some to be based on Hadrian's wall (the Gillam hypothesis),<ref>{{cite web|last1=Rohl|first1=Darrell, Jesse|title=More than a Roman Monument: A Place-centred Approach to the Long-term History and Archaeology of the Antonine Wall|url=http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/9458/1/DarrellRohl_PhDThesis_2014.pdf?DDD6+#page=216|website=Durham Theses|publisher=Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online ref: 9458|accessdate=14 October 2017}}</ref> was not declared a World Heritage site until 2008.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/tayside_and_central/7494680.stm "Wall gains World Heritage status'"] BBC News. Retrieved 8 July 2008.</ref><ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/430 Frontiers of the Roman Empire - UNESCO World Heritage Centre<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>

It is a common misconception that Hadrian's Wall marks the boundary between England and Scotland. In fact Hadrian's Wall lies entirely within England and has never formed the [[Anglo-Scottish border]].<ref>[http://blog.english-heritage.org.uk/30-surprising-facts-hadrians-wall/ English Heritage. ''30 Surprising Facts About Hadrian's Wall''] Retrieved 18 March 2017.</ref> While it is less than {{convert|0.6|mi|km|1}} south of the border with Scotland in the west at Bowness-on-Solway, in the east it is as much as {{convert|68|mi|km}} away.

==Dimensions==
Hadrian's Wall was 80 [[Roman mile]]s or {{convert|117.5|km|1|abbr=on}} long;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/hadrian_gallery_01.shtml |title=BBC – History – Hadrian's Wall Gallery |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date=1 January 2013 |accessdate=26 March 2013}}</ref> its width and height varied according to the construction materials available nearby. East of the [[River Irthing]], the wall was made from squared stone and measured {{convert|3|m|ft|0|abbr=off}} wide and {{convert|5|to|6|m|ft|abbr=off}} high, while west of the river the wall was originally made from [[Sod#As a building material|turf]] and measured {{convert|6|m|ft|abbr=off}} wide and {{convert|3.5|m|ft|abbr=off}} high; it was later rebuilt in stone. These dimensions do not include the wall's ditches, [[berm]]s and forts. The central section measured eight Roman feet wide (7.8&nbsp;ft or 2.4&nbsp;m) on a {{convert|3|m|sing=on|abbr=on|0}} base. Some parts of this section of the wall survive to a height of {{convert|3|m|abbr=on|0}}.

Immediately south of the wall, a large ditch was dug, with adjoining parallel mounds, one on either side. This is known today as the [[Vallum (Hadrian's Wall)|Vallum]], even though the word ''Vallum'' in Latin is the origin of the English word ''wall'', and does not refer to a ditch. In many places – for example [[Limestone Corner]] – the Vallum is better preserved than the wall, which has been robbed of much of its stone.

==Route==
[[File:Hadrian's Wall map.svg|thumb|right|Route of Hadrian's Wall]]
[[File:Hadrian's wall at Greenhead Lough.jpg|thumb|right|Sections of Hadrian's Wall remain along the route, though much has been dismantled over the years to use the stones for various nearby construction projects.]]

Hadrian's Wall extended west from [[Segedunum]] at [[Wallsend]] on the [[River Tyne, England|River Tyne]], via [[Carlisle, Cumbria|Carlisle]] and [[Kirkandrews-on-Eden]], to the shore of the [[Solway Firth]], ending a short but unknown distance west of the village of [[Bowness-on-Solway]].<ref name=collingwood>{{cite book |first=David J|last=Breeze|title=Handbook to the Roman Wall |edition=14th – November 2006|date=November 2006 |publisher=Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle upon Tyne (1934) |isbn=0-901082-65-1}}</ref> The [[A69 road|A69]] and [[B6318 Military Road|B6318]] roads follow the course of the wall from [[Newcastle upon Tyne]] to [[Carlisle, Cumbria|Carlisle]], then along the northern coast of Cumbria (south shore of the [[Solway Firth]]).

Although the [[Curtain wall (fortification)|curtain wall]] ends near Bowness-on-Solway, this does not mark the end of the line of defensive structures. The system of [[milecastle]]s and [[Turret (Hadrian's Wall)|turrets]] is known to have continued along the [[Cumbria]] coast as far as Risehow, south of [[Maryport]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Breeze|first=D.J.|chapter=Roman military sites on the Cumbrian coast|location=Kendal|publisher=Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian & Archaeological Society on behalf of the Trustees of the Senhouse Roman Museum, Maryport|year=2004|title=Romans on the Solway : essays in honour of Richard Bellhouse|editor= R.J.A. Wilson and I.D Caruana, eds|pages=1–231, p.66–94|series=CWAAS Extra Series, vol.31|isbn=1873124392}}</ref>
For classification purposes, the milecastles west of Bowness-on-Solway are referred to as [[Milefortlet]]s.

==Purpose of construction==
[[File:Hadrianswall2007.jpg|thumb|right|Hadrian's Wall facing east towards [[Crag Lough]]]]
Hadrian's Wall was probably planned before [[Hadrian]]'s visit to Britain in AD 122. According to restored sandstone fragments found in [[Jarrow]] which date from 118 or 119, it was Hadrian's wish to keep "intact the empire", which had been imposed on him via "divine instruction".<ref name="Anthony Everitt">[[Anthony Everitt]], ''Hadrian and the Triumph of Rome'' (2009), Random House, Inc, 448 pages; {{ISBN|0-8129-7814-5}}.</ref>

Although Hadrian's biographer wrote {{nobreak|"[Hadrian]}} was the first to build a wall 80 miles long to separate the Romans from the barbarians", reasons for the construction of the wall vary, and no recording of an exact explanation survives.<ref name=script>{{Cite book|author=Unknown|title=[[Augustan History|Scriptores Historiae Augustae]]|volume=Vita Hadriani|chapter=11.2}}</ref> Theories have been presented by historians, mostly of an expression of Roman power and Hadrian's policy of defence before expansion. On his accession to the throne in 117, Hadrian had been experiencing rebellion in [[Roman Britain]] and from the peoples of various conquered lands across the Empire, including [[Egypt]], [[Judea]], [[Libya]] and [[Mauritania]].<ref name="Anthony Everitt"/>

These troubles may have influenced Hadrian's plan to construct the wall as well as his construction of [[Limes|''limites'']] in other areas of the Empire, but to what extent is unknown. Scholars disagree over how much of a threat the inhabitants of northern Britain really presented and whether there was any economic advantage in defending and garrisoning a fixed line of defences like the Wall, rather than conquering and annexing what has become the [[Scottish Lowlands]] and defending the territory with a loose arrangement of forts.<ref name="Anthony Everitt"/>

The ''limites'' of Rome were never expected to stop tribes from migrating or armies from invading, and while a frontier protected by a palisade or stone wall would help curb cattle-raiders and the incursions of other small groups,<ref name="Stephen Johnson 2004">Stephen Johnson (2004) Hadrian's Wall, Sterling Publishing Company, Inc, 128 pages, {{ISBN|0-7134-8840-9}}</ref> the economic viability of constructing and keeping guarded a wall {{convert|72|mi|km|adj=off}} long along a sparsely populated border to stop small-scale raiding is dubious.<ref name="Anthony Everitt"/>

Another possible explanation for the wall is the degree of control it would have provided over immigration, smuggling and customs.<ref name="Anthony Everitt"/> ''Limites'' did not strictly mark the boundaries of the empire: Roman power and influence often extended beyond the walls.<ref name="Anthony Everitt"/> People within and beyond the ''limes'' travelled through it each day when conducting business, and organised check-points like those offered by Hadrian's Wall provided good opportunities for taxation. With watch towers only a short distance from gateways in the ''limes'', patrolling legionaries could have kept track of entering and exiting natives and Roman citizens alike, charging customs dues and checking for smuggling.{{citation needed|date=October 2014}} Another theory is of a simpler variety{{mdash}}that Hadrian's Wall was partly constructed to reflect the power of Rome and was used as a political point by Hadrian. Once its construction was finished, it is thought to have been covered in plaster and then whitewashed: its shining surface reflected the sunlight and was visible for miles around.<ref name="Anthony Everitt"/>

==Construction==
Construction started in AD 122<ref>{{cite book|last1=Breeze|first1= D.J.|last2=Dobson|first2= B.|year=2000|title=Hadrian's Wall|edition=4|location= London|publisher= Penguin Books|page=86|isbn= 978-0140271829}}</ref> and was largely completed in six years.<ref>Wilson, 271.</ref> Construction started in the east, between milecastles four and seven, and proceeded westwards, with soldiers from all three of the occupying [[Roman legion]]s participating in the work. The route chosen largely paralleled the nearby [[Stanegate]] road from [[Luguvalium]] ([[Carlisle, Cumbria|Carlisle]]) to [[Coria (Corbridge)|Coria]] ([[Corbridge]]), upon which were situated a series of forts, including [[Vindolanda]]. The wall in its central and best-preserved section follows a hard, resistant igneous [[diabase]] rock escarpment, known as the [[Whin Sill]].

[[File:Corbridge stangate.jpg|thumb|left|Roman fort and town at [[Corbridge|Corstopitum]] viewed along the [[Stanegate]]]]

The initial plan called for a ditch and wall with 80 small gated [[milecastle]] fortlets, one placed every Roman mile, holding a few dozen troops each, and pairs of evenly spaced intermediate [[turret]]s used for [[observation]] and signalling. However, very few milecastles are actually sited at exact Roman mile divisions: they can be up to 200 yards east or west because of landscape features or to improve signalling to the Stanegate forts to the south.<ref>Woolliscroft, D., 1989, "Signalling and the design of Hadrian's Wall", Archaeologia Aeliana 5th Series, Vol. XVII, pp. 5–20.</ref> Local [[limestone]] was used in the construction, except for the section to the west of the [[River Irthing]] where turf was originally used instead, for unknown reasons; it was later rebuilt in stone. Milecastles in this area were also built from timber and earth rather than stone, but turrets were always made from stone. The Broad Wall was initially built with a clay-bonded rubble core and mortared dressed rubble facing stones, but this seems to have made it vulnerable to collapse, and repair with a mortared core was sometimes necessary.

The milecastles and turrets were of three different designs, depending on which [[Roman legion]] built them – inscriptions of the [[Legio II Augusta|Second]], [[Legio VI Victrix|Sixth]], and [[Legio XX Valeria Victrix|Twentieth]] Legions, show that all were involved in the construction. The turrets were about {{convert|493|m|yd|abbr=off}} apart and measured 14.02 square metres (150.9 square feet) internally.{{citation needed|date=April 2015}}

Construction was divided into lengths of about {{convert|5|mi|km}}. One group of each legion would excavate the foundations and build the milecastles and turrets and then other [[cohort (military unit)|cohorts]] would follow with the wall construction. The wall was finished in 128.
{{Clear}}

==="Broad Wall" and "Narrow Wall"===
{{Unreferenced section|date=May 2015}}
[[File:Hadrian's Wall Vallum - 2007-05-19.jpg|thumb|[[Vallum (Hadrian's Wall)|Vallum]] at Hadrian's Wall near Milecastle 42 (Cawfields)]]

Early in its construction, just after reaching the [[River Tyne|North Tyne]], the width of the wall was narrowed to {{convert|2.5|m|ft|abbr=on}} or even less (sometimes 1.8 metres) (the "Narrow Wall"). However, Broad Wall foundations had already been laid as far as the [[River Irthing]], where the Turf Wall began, demonstrating that construction worked from east to west. Many [[turrets]] and [[milecastle]]s were optimistically provided with wider stub "[[wing wall]]s" in preparation for joining to the Broad Wall, offering a handy reference for archaeologists trying to piece together the construction chronology.

Within a few years it was decided to add a total of 14 to 17 (sources{{which|date=May 2015}} disagree) full-sized forts along the length of the wall, including [[Vercovicium]] ([[Housesteads]]) and [[Banna (Birdoswald)|Banna]] ([[Birdoswald]]), each holding between 500 and 1,000 [[auxilia]]ry troops (no legions were posted to the wall). The eastern end of the wall was extended further east from [[Pons Aelius]] ([[Newcastle upon Tyne|Newcastle]]) to [[Segedunum]] (Wallsend) on the [[River Tyne|Tyne]] estuary. Some of the larger forts along the wall, such as [[Cilurnum]] (Chesters) and [[Vercovicium]] (Housesteads), were built on top of the footings of milecastles or turrets, showing the change of plan. An inscription mentioning early [[Roman governors of Britain|governor]] [[Aulus Platorius Nepos]] indicates that the change of plans took place early on. Also, some time during Hadrian's reign (before 138) the wall west of the Irthing was rebuilt in sandstone to about the same dimensions as the limestone section to the east.

[[File:Hadrianswall-cross-section.png|thumb|right|Cross section of the works]]

After most of the forts had been added, the [[Vallum (Hadrian's Wall)|Vallum]] was built on the southern side. The wall was thus part of a defensive system which, from north to south, included:
* A row of forts built {{convert|5|to|10|mi|km|abbr=on}} north of the wall, used for scouting and intelligence (e.g. [[Bewcastle Roman Fort]])
* a [[glacis]] and a deep ditch
* a [[berm]] with rows of pits holding entanglements
* the curtain wall
* a later military road (the [[Military Way (Hadrian's Wall)|Military Way]])
* The Vallum.

[[File:Hadrians Wall from Housesteads1 crop.jpg|thumb|right|Part of Hadrian's Wall from [[Vercovicium|Housesteads]] showing the [[Knag Burn Gateway]] in the valley]]

==={{anchor|Turf Wall}}Turf wall===
From [[Milecastle 49]] to the western terminus of the wall at Bowness-on-Solway, the curtain wall was originally constructed from turf, possibly due to the absence of limestone for the manufacture of mortar.<ref name=handbookTW>{{Cite book|first=David J|last=Breeze|title=Handbook to the Roman Wall |edition=14th – November 2006|publisher=Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle upon Tyne|year=1934|isbn=0-901082-65-1|pages=55–62}}</ref> Subsequently, the Turf Wall was demolished and replaced with a stone wall. This took place in two phases; the first (from the River Irthing to a point west of [[Milecastle 54]]), during the reign of Hadrian, and the second following the reoccupation of Hadrian's Wall subsequent to the abandonment of the [[Antonine Wall]] (though it has also been suggested that this second phase took place during the reign of [[Septimius Severus]]). The line of the new stone wall follows the line of the turf wall, apart from the stretch between Milecastle 49 and [[Milecastle 51]], where the line of the stone wall is slightly further to the north.<ref name=handbookTW/>

In the stretch around [[Milecastle 50TW]], it was built on a flat base with three to four courses of turf blocks.<ref name="CumbWest220">{{Citation | last = Simpson | first = F G | last2 = Richmond | first2 = I A | last3 = St Joseph | first3 = K | year = 1935 | title = Report of the Cumberland Excavation Committee for 1934 | <!--chapter = 2. The Turf Wall milecastle at High House--> | journal = Transactions of the Cumberland & Westmorland Antiquarian & Archaeological Society | series = new series | volume = 35 | publisher = Titus Wilson & Son | pages = 220–32}}</ref> A basal layer of cobbles was used westwards from [[Milecastle 72]] (at Burgh-by-Sands) and possibly at [[Milecastle 53]].<ref name="CumbWest262">{{Citation | last = Simpson | first = F G | last2 = MacIntyre | first2 = J | year = 1933 | title = Report of the Cumberland Excavation Committee for 1932 | <!--chapter = 2. Banks Burn to Randylands--> | journal = Transactions of the Cumberland & Westmorland Antiquarian & Archaeological Society | series = new series | volume = 33 | publisher = Titus Wilson & Son | pages = 262–70}}</ref> Where the underlying ground was boggy, wooden piles were used.<ref name=handbookTW/>

At its base, the now-demolished turf wall was {{convert|6|m|ft}} wide, and built in courses of turf blocks measuring {{convert|18|inch|cm}} long by {{convert|12|inch|cm}} deep by {{convert|6|inch|cm}} high, to a height estimated at around {{convert|3.66|m|ft}}. The north face is thought to have had a slope of 75%, whereas the south face is thought to have started vertical above the foundation, quickly becoming much shallower.<ref name=handbookTW/>

===Standards===

Above the stone curtain wall's foundations, one or more footing courses were laid. Offsets were introduced above these footing courses (on both the north and south faces), which reduced the wall's width. Where the width of the curtain wall is stated, it is in reference to the width above the offset. Two standards of offset have been identified: Standard A, where the offset occurs above the first footing course, and Standard B, where the offset occurs after the third (or sometimes fourth) footing course.<ref name=handbook>{{Citation|first=David J.|last=Breeze|title=Handbook to the Roman Wall |edition=14th – November 2006|publisher=Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle upon Tyne|year=1934|isbn=0-901082-65-1|page=53}}</ref>

==Garrison==
According to [[Sheppard Frere]], the garrison reflected the political rather than military purpose of the wall. The wall provided the soldiers with an elevated platform from which they could safely observe movement of the local population. It had "heavy provision of cavalry" which could sally out from any of the milestone gates though as mentioned earlier, the garrison was neither expected nor trained to the level necessary to defend a city wall. Overall the fortifications appear to have required additional strengthening after the initial design and were stronger than their equivalent in Germany, probably reflecting local resentment.

Frere believes that the milecastles, which would have needed 1000–1500 men, were held by a patrolling garrison of [[Numerus (Roman military unit)|Numeri]], though he concedes that there are no inscriptions referring to Numeri in Britain at the time. Command headquarters was at [[Uxelodunum]] (nowadays called [[Stanwix]]) near Carlisle, where the [[Ala (Roman allied military unit)|Ala Petriana]] was based. A signalling system allowed communication in minutes between Stanwix and York.<ref>{{cite book |title=Britannia |date=1980 |publisher=Routlege & Kegan Paul |author=Sheppard Frere |authorlink=Sheppard Frere |ISBN=0-7100-8916-3 |pages=158–160}}</ref>

Further information on the garrisoning of the wall has been provided by the discovery of the [[Vindolanda tablets]], such as the record of an inspection on 18 May between AD 92 and AD 97 where only 456 of the full quota of 756 Dutch and Belgian troops were present, the rest being sick or otherwise absent.<ref>{{cite book |title=A History of Britain |date=2000 |publisher =BBC Worldwide Ltd |author=Simon Schama |authorlink=Simon Schama |ISBN=0-563-38497-2|pages=34–37}}</ref>

==After Hadrian==
[[File:Leahill Turret 51B, looking East. Hadrian's Wall.JPG|left|thumb|Leahill 51B is a typical example of the many turrets built into the wall between the milecastles.]]
In the years after Hadrian's death in 138, the new emperor, [[Antoninus Pius]], essentially abandoned the wall, leaving it occupied in a support role, and began building a new wall called the [[Antonine Wall]], about {{convert|160|km|mi|-1}} north, in what later became known as the [[Scottish Lowlands]], across the isthmus running west-south-west to east-north-east, sometimes referred to as the [[Central Belt]] or [[Central Lowlands]]. This turf wall ran 40 Roman miles, or about {{convert|37.8|mi|km|abbr=on}}, and had significantly more forts than Hadrian's Wall. Antoninus was unable to conquer the northern tribes, so when [[Marcus Aurelius]] became emperor, he abandoned the Antonine Wall and reoccupied Hadrian's Wall as the main defensive barrier in 164. In 208–211, the Emperor [[Septimius Severus]] again tried to conquer [[Caledonia]] and temporarily reoccupied the Antonine Wall. The campaign ended inconclusively and the Romans eventually withdrew to Hadrian's Wall. [[Bede]], following [[Gildas]], wrote in [AD 730]:

{{quote|text= [the departing Romans] thinking that it might be some help to the allies [Britons], whom they were forced to abandon, constructed a strong stone wall from sea to sea, in a straight line between the towns that had been there built for fear of the enemy, where Severus also had formerly built a rampart.||Bede, ''Historia Ecclesiastica'' Book I Chapter 12}}

Bede obviously identified Gildas' stone wall as Hadrian's Wall (actually built in the 120s) and he would appear to have deduced that the ditch-and-mound barrier known as the Vallum (just to the south of and contemporary with, Hadrian's Wall) was the rampart constructed by Severus. Many centuries would pass before just who built what became apparent.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dot-domesday.me.uk/s_wall.htm |title=Wall of Severus |publisher=Dot-domesday.me.uk |date= |accessdate=2016-04-12}}</ref>

In the late 4th century, barbarian invasions, economic decline and military coups loosened the Empire's hold on Britain. By 410, the estimated [[End of Roman rule in Britain]], the Roman administration and its legions were gone and Britain was left to look to its own defences and government. Archaeologists have revealed that some parts of the wall remained occupied well into the 5th century. It has been suggested that some forts continued to be garrisoned by local Britons under the control of a [[Coel Hen]] figure and former [[dux]]. Hadrian's Wall fell into ruin and over the centuries the stone was reused in other local buildings. Enough survived in the 8th century for [[spolia]] from Hadrian's Wall to find their way into the construction of [[Jarrow Priory]].

[[File:clayton painting.jpg|thumb|Painting by [[William Bell Scott]]; the face of the centurion is that of [[John Clayton (Newcastle)|John Clayton]] (Painting at [[Wallington Hall]])]]
[[File:Hadrians Wall with Weedkiller.JPG|thumb|Hadrian's Wall near Birdoswald Fort, with a man spraying weed-killer to reduce biological weathering to the stones]]

The wall fascinated [[John Speed]], who published a set of maps of England and Wales by county at the start of the 17th century. He described it as "the Picts Wall" (or "Pictes"; he uses both spellings). ''A map of Newecastle'' (sic), drawn in 1610 by William Matthew, described it as "Severus' Wall", mistakenly giving it the name ascribed by Bede to the Antonine Wall. The maps for [[Cumberland]] and [[Northumberland]] not only show the wall as a major feature, but are ornamented with drawings of Roman finds, together with, in the case of the Cumberland map, a [[cartouche (cartography)|cartouche]] in which he sets out a description of the wall itself.

===Preservation by John Clayton===
Much of the wall has now disappeared. Long sections of it were used for [[roadbuilding]] in the 18th century,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.english-lakes.com/hadrians_wall.htm |title=Hadrian's Wall |website=English-lakes.com |date= |accessdate=2016-04-12}}</ref> especially by [[General Wade]] to build a military road (most of which lies beneath the present day B6318 "[[Military Road (Northumberland)|Military Road]]") to move troops to crush the [[Jacobite rising of 1745|Jacobite insurrection]]. The preservation of much of what remains can be credited to [[John Clayton (Newcastle)|John Clayton]]. He trained as a lawyer and became [[town clerk]] of Newcastle in the 1830s. He became enthusiastic about preserving the wall after a visit to [[Cilurnum|Chesters]]. To prevent farmers taking stones from the wall, he began buying some of the land on which the wall stood. In 1834, he started purchasing property around Steel Rigg near [[Crag Lough]]. Eventually, he controlled land from [[Brunton, Northumberland|Brunton]] to Cawfields. This stretch included the sites of Chesters, [[Carrawburgh]], [[Housesteads]], and [[Vindolanda]]. Clayton carried out excavation at the fort at [[Cilurnum]] and at Housesteads, and he excavated some milecastles.

Clayton managed the farms he had acquired and succeeded in improving both the land and the livestock. His successful management produced a cash-flow, which could be invested in future restoration work. Workmen were employed to restore sections of the wall, generally up to a height of seven courses. The best example of the Clayton Wall is at Housesteads. After Clayton's death, the estate passed to relatives and was soon lost at gambling. Eventually, the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]] began acquiring the land on which the wall stands. At [[Wallington Hall]], near Morpeth, there is a painting by [[William Bell Scott]], which shows a [[centurion]] supervising the building of the wall. The centurion has been given the face of John Clayton.

===World Heritage Site===
Hadrian's Wall was declared a [[World Heritage Site]] in 1987, and in 2005 it became part of the transnational "[[Frontiers of the Roman Empire]]" World Heritage Site which also includes sites in Germany.<ref>{{cite web|author=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|title=Frontiers of the Roman Empire|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/430/|accessdate=26 November 2007}}</ref>

===Tourism===
Although Hadrian's Wall was declared a World Heritage Site in 1987, it remains unguarded, enabling visitors to climb and stand on the wall, although this is not encouraged, as it could damage the historic structure. On 13 March 2010, a public event [[Illuminating Hadrian's Wall]] took place, which saw the route of the wall lit with 500 beacons. On 31 August and 2 September 2012, there was a second illumination of the wall as a digital art installation called "Connecting Light", which was part of the [[2012 Cultural Olympiad|London 2012 Festival]].

===Hadrian's Wall Path===
{{Main|Hadrian's Wall Path}}
In 2003, a [[National Trail]] footpath was opened that follows the line of the wall from [[Wallsend]] to [[Bowness-on-Solway]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nationaltrail.co.uk/HadriansWall/ |publisher= National Trails |title=Hadrian's Wall Path|accessdate=26 November 2007}}</ref> Because of the fragile landscape, walkers are asked to follow the path only in summer.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nationaltrail.co.uk/HadriansWall/text.asp?PageId=27 |publisher=Hadrians Wall Path National Trail |title=Every Footstep Counts – The Trail's Country Code|accessdate=26 November 2007}}</ref>

==Roman-period names==
{{original research section|date=August 2014}}
[[File:Milecastle 39 on Hadrian's Wall.jpg|thumb|The remains of Castle Nick, [[Milecastle]] 39, near Steel Rigg, between Housesteads and the [[Once Brewed]] Visitor Centre for the Northumberland National Park]]
[[File:Hadrians Wall 05.JPG|thumb|The remains of the fort at Housesteads]]
[[File:Hwallcup.jpg|thumb|The [[Staffordshire Moorlands Pan]], which may provide the ancient name of Hadrian's Wall]]
[[File:Poltross burn milecastle.jpg|thumb|Poltross Burn, Milecastle 48]]
[[File:CRW 2684.jpg|thumb|right|Sycamore Gap (the "Robin Hood Tree")<ref>Sycamore Gap, a section of the wall between two crests just east of Milecastle 39, is locally known as the "Robin Hood Tree" for its use in the 1991 film ''[[Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves]]'' (1991).</ref>]]
[[File:Leahill Turret 51B, volunteer at 'Illuminating Hadrian's Wall' 2010.JPG|thumb|right|A volunteer stands inside [[Leahill Turret, Hadrian's Wall|Leahill Turret 51B]]]]

The only ancient source for its provenance is the ''[[Augustan History]]''. No sources survive to confirm what the wall was called in antiquity, and no historical literary source gives it a name. However, the discovery of the [[Staffordshire Moorlands Pan]] in Staffordshire in 2003 has provided a clue. This small enamelled bronze Roman ''trulla'' (ladle), dating to the 2nd century AD, is inscribed with a series of names of Roman forts along the western sector of the wall, together with a personal name and phrase: <small>MAIS COGGABATA VXELODVNVM CAMBOGLANNA RIGORE VALI AELI DRACONIS</small>.

Bowness (<small>MAIS</small>) is followed by Drumburgh-by-Sands (<small>COGGABATA</small>), until now known only as <small>CONGAVATA</small> from the late Roman document, the [[Notitia Dignitatum]]. Next comes Stanwix (<small>VXELODVNVM</small>), then Castlesteads (<small>CAMBOGLANNA</small>). These are the four of the westernmost forts on Hadrian's Wall, but excluding [[Aballava]].

<small>RIGORE</small> is the [[ablative]] singular form of the Latin word ''rigor''. This can mean several things, but one of its lesser-known meanings is "straight line", "course", or "direction". This sense was used by Roman surveyors and appears on several inscriptions to indicate a line between places. So the meaning could be "according to the course".

There is no known word ''vali'', but ''vallum'' was the Latin word for an earthen wall, rampart, or fortification.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059%3Aentry%3D%2350146 |title=Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, A Latin Dictionary, vallum |website=Perseus.tufts.edu |date= |accessdate=2016-04-12}}</ref> In modern English usage ''vallum'' is applied to the ditch and adjoining mounds dug by the Roman army just south of the wall, but to the Romans a ''vallum'' was a wall and not a ditch (it is the source of the English word 'wall'). The genitive singular form of ''vallum'' is ''valli'', so one of the most likely meanings is <small>VAL[L]I</small>, "of the ''Wall''{{-"}}. Omitting one of a pair of double consonants is common on Roman inscriptions; moreover, an error in the transcription of a written note could be the reason: another similar bronze vessel, known as the [[Rudge Cup]] (found in Wiltshire in the 18th century) has VN missing from the name <small>VXELODVNVM</small>, for example, although the letters appear on the Staffordshire Moorlands Pan. The Rudge Cup only bears fort names.

The name <small>AELI</small> was Hadrian's ''[[Roman naming conventions|nomen]]'', his main family name, the ''[[Aelia (gens)|gens Aelia]]''. The Roman bridge and fort at [[Newcastle upon Tyne]] was called ''Pons Aelius''.

<small>DRACONIS</small> can be translated as "[by the hand – or property] of Draco". It was normal for Roman manufacturers to give their names in the genitive ("of"), and "by the hand" would be understood. The form is common, for example, on [[Samian ware]].

The translation, therefore, could be:

<blockquote>Mais, Coggabata, Uxelodunum, Camboglanna, according to the line of Aelian wall. [By the hand ''or'' The property] of Draco.</blockquote>

Another possibility is that the individual's name was Aelius Draco, which would only leave us with an unspecified ''vallum'', "wall".

===Forts===
The Latin and Romano-Celtic names of all of the Hadrian's Wall forts are known, from the [[Notitia Dignitatum]] and other evidence such as inscriptions:
* [[Segedunum]] ([[Wallsend]])
* [[Pons Aelius]] ([[Newcastle upon Tyne]])
* [[Condercum]] ([[Benwell|Benwell Hill]])
* [[Vindobala]] ([[Rudchester]])<ref name="Chester">Note the suffix "chester", reflecting the presence of a Roman [[castra]].</ref>
* [[Hunnum]] ([[Halton Chesters]])<ref name="Chester"/>
* [[Cilurnum]] ([[Chesters]] aka [[Walwick Chesters]])<ref name="Chester"/>
* [[Procolita]] ([[Carrowburgh]])
* [[Vercovicium]] ([[Housesteads]])
* [[Aesica]] ([[Great Chesters]])<ref name="Chester"/>
* [[Magnis (Carvoran)|Magnis]] (Carvoran)
* [[Banna (Birdoswald)|Banna]] ([[Birdoswald]])
* [[Camboglanna]] (Castlesteads)
* [[Uxelodunum]] ([[Stanwix]]. Also known as [[Petriana]])
* [[Aballava]] ([[Burgh-by-Sands]])
* [[Coggabata]] ([[Drumburgh]])
* [[Mais (Bowness)|Mais]] ([[Bowness-on-Solway]])

Turrets on the wall include:
* [[Leahill Turret, Hadrian's Wall|Leahill Turret]]

Outpost forts beyond the wall include:
* [[Habitancum]] ([[Risingham]])
* [[Bremenium]] ([[Rochester, Northumberland|High Rochester]])<ref name="Chester"/>
* [[Bewcastle Roman Fort|Fanum Cocidi]] ([[Bewcastle]]) (north of Birdoswald)
* Ad Fines ([[Chew Green]])<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.genuki.bpears.org.uk/NBL/Gaz1868.html |title=GENUKI: The National Gazetteer of Great Britain and Ireland (1868) – Northumberland |publisher=Genuki.bpears.org.uk |date=3 August 2010 |accessdate=26 March 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130505010924/http://www.genuki.bpears.org.uk/NBL/Gaz1868.html |archivedate=5 May 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

Supply forts behind the wall include:
* [[Alauna (Maryport)|Alauna]] ([[Maryport]])
* [[Arbeia]] ([[South Shields]])
* [[Coria (Corbridge)|Coria]] ([[Corbridge]])
* [[Vindolanda]] ([[Little Chesters]] or [[Chesterholm]])<ref name="Chester"/>
* [[Vindomora]] ([[Ebchester]])<ref name="Chester"/>

==In popular culture==
{{Refimprove section|date=December 2015}}
* '''Books'''
** Nobel Prize–winning English author [[Rudyard Kipling]] contributed to the popular image of the "Great Pict Wall" in his short stories about Parnesius, a Roman legionary who defended the Wall against the Picts.{{citation needed|date=November 2013}} These stories are a part of the [[Puck of Pook's Hill]] cycle, published in 1906.
** American author [[George R. R. Martin]] has acknowledged that Hadrian's Wall was the inspiration for [[The Wall (A Song of Ice and Fire)|The Wall]] in his best-selling series ''[[A Song of Ice and Fire]]'', dramatised in the fantasy TV series ''[[Game of Thrones]]'', which is also in the north of its country and stretches from coast to coast.<ref name=georgerrmartin>{{cite web|last=Martin|first=George R.R|title=A Conversation With George R.R. Martin|url=http://www.sfsite.com/01a/gm95.htm|work=The SF Site|accessdate=10 September 2011}}</ref>
** In [[M J Trow]]'s fictional ''Britannia'' series, Hadrian's Wall is the central location and portrays [[Coel Hen]] and [[Padarn Beisrudd]] as [[limitanei]].
* '''Movies'''
** The 1991 American romantic action adventure film ''[[Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves]]'' in the location of Sycamore gap.
** The wall has also been featured in recent films such as ''[[Centurion (film)|Centurion]]'' and ''[[The Eagle (2011 film)|The Eagle]]'', and was a major focal point of the 2004 ''[[King Arthur (2004 film)|King Arthur]]'' in which one of the primary gates is opened for the first time since the wall's construction to allow Arthur and his knights passage into the north for their quest. The climactic [[Battle of Badon]] between the Britons led by [[King Arthur|Arthur]] and his knights, and the Saxons led by [[Cerdic]] and his son [[Cynric]] took place in the film just inside the wall.
** The 2007 action adventure film ''[[The Last Legion]]'' featured Hadrian's wall as the place where the final battle takes place.
** The 2008 science fiction film ''[[Doomsday (2008 film)|Doomsday]]'' featured Hadrian's wall rebuilt to quarantine Scotland because of a deadly virus.
** The 2015 film "[[Dragonheart 3: The Sorcerer's Curse]]" features Hadrian's wall as a main thematic element.
* '''Music'''
** The opening track from [[Maxim Reality|Maxim]]'s first solo effort ''[[Hell's Kitchen (Maxim album)|Hell's Kitchen]]'' is named "Hadrian's Wall".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nekozine.co.uk/maxim/hellskitchen/hellskitchen.html|title=MAXIM : HELLS KITCHEN - the album, scans and info|author=|work=Nekozine.co.uk|accessdate=2016-04-12}}</ref>
** The second track on the English-American [[hard rock]] band [[Black Country Communion]] second [[Black Country Communion 2|album]] is called "The Battle for Hadrian's Wall". The lyrics reference outposts separated by a mile each, such as "We sit in waiting every mile on Hadrian's Wall".
* '''Television'''
** The final episode in the [[Blackadder|Blackadder series]] is the television film ''[[Blackadder: Back & Forth]]''. In this episode, [[Edmund Blackadder|Blackadder]] and [[Baldrick]] attempt to collect significant historical souvenirs in order to win a bet. During their adventures, they take note at their own ancestors, one of which is a Roman defender of Hadrian's Wall who makes slight remarks of the wall's unimpressive (modern) height.
** [[Billy Connolly]] World tour of England Ireland and Wales episode 4, Billy left Ireland and came to Northumberland on Roman road and he's on Hadrian's wall on the rainy day before Billy came to Newcastle 2002.
** On the NBC show "Grimm," in the 2015-2016 season, the protagonist group that helps to fight the antagonist is called "H.W." short for "Hadrian's Wall."
* '''Video Game'''
[[File:Vindac latin game.jpg|alt=Vindac latin language video game|thumb|Barbarians and wolves attack Hadrian's Wall. Scene from the iOS game Vindac, Version 1.0.]]
** [[Vindac]] is a Latin Language preposition game set at Hadrian's Wall. Gamers cast Latin preposition spells by gesture at barbaric foes.
* '''Poetry'''
** British poet [[W. H. Auden]] wrote a script for a BBC radio documentary called ''Hadrian's Wall,'' which was broadcast on BBC's north-eastern Regional Programme in 1937. Auden later published a poem from the script, "Roman Wall Blues," in his book [[Another Time (book)|Another Time]]. The poem is a brief monologue spoken in the voice of a lonely Roman soldier stationed at the wall.
* '''Other media'''
** Hadrian's Wall is the name of a Barrier ICE card in the card game ''[[Android: Netrunner]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cardgamedb.com/index.php/netrunner/android-netrunner-card-spoilers/_/core/hadrians-wall-core |title=Hadrian's Wall - Core - Android: Netrunner LCG - Android: Netrunner Card Spoilers |website=Cardgamedb.com |date= |accessdate=2016-04-12}}</ref>

==See also==<!-- PLEASE RESPECT ALPHABETICAL ORDER -->
[[File:Beacons lit along Hadrians Wall (geograph 4917923).jpg|thumb|right|In 2010, to commemorate the 1600th anniversary of the end of Roman rule in Britain, a series of 500 beacons were lit along the length of the wall]]
{{div col||25em}}
* [[Anastasian Wall]] (in Turkey)
* [[Anglo-Scottish border]]
* [[Antonine Wall]]
* [[Athanaric's Wall]] (in Romania)
* [[Berlin Wall]]
* [[Danevirke]]
* [[List of English Heritage properties|English Heritage properties]]
* [[Gask Ridge]]
* [[Great Wall (disambiguation)]]
* [[Great Wall of China]]
* [[Great Wall of Gorgan]] (in Iran)
* [[Hadrian's Wall Path]]
* [[Hadrianic Society]]
* [[History of Northumberland]]
* [[History of Scotland]]
* [[Limes]]
* [[List of walls]]
* [[Offa's Dyke]]
* [[Roman Britain]]
* [[Rudge Cup]]
* [[Scots' Dike]]
* [[Silesian Walls]] (in Poland)
* [[Trajan's Wall]] (in Romania)
* [[Via Hadriana]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Sources==
* Burton, Anthony ''Hadrian's Wall Path''. 2004 Aurum Press Ltd. {{ISBN|1-85410-893-X}}.
* Davies, Hunter ''A Walk along the Wall'', 1974 Wiedenfield and Nicolson: London {{ISBN|0 297 76710 0}}.
* de la Bédoyère, Guy. ''Hadrian's Wall: A History and Guide''. Stroud: Tempus, 1998. {{ISBN|0-7524-1407-0}}.
* ''England's Roman Frontier: Discovering Carlisle and Hadrian's Wall Country''. Hadrian's Wall Heritage Ltd and Carlisle Tourism Partnership. 2010.
* Forde-Johnston, James L. ''Hadrian's Wall''. London: Michael Joseph, 1978. {{ISBN|0-7181-1652-6}}.
* Hadrian's Wall Path (map). Harvey, 12–22 Main Street, Doune, Perthshire FK16 6BJ. [http://www.harveymaps.co.uk/ harveymaps.co.uk]
* Speed Maps – A set of Speed's maps were issued bound in a single volume in 1988 in association with the British Library and with an introduction by Nigel Nicolson as 'The Counties of Britain A Tudor Atlas by John Speed'.
* Moffat, Alistair, ''The Wall''. 2008 Birlinn Limited Press. {{ISBN|1-84158-675-7}}.
* Tomlin, R. S. O., "Inscriptions" in ''Britannia'' (2004), vol. xxxv, pp.&nbsp;344–5 (the Staffordshire Moorlands cup naming the Wall).
* Wilson, Roger J.A., ''A Guide to the Roman Remains in Britain''. London: Constable & Company, 1980; {{ISBN|0-09-463260-X}}.
* {{cite book|author=Charlotte Higgins |year=2014 |title=Under Another Sky Chapter 7|location=London, UK|publisher=Vintage|ISBN=978-0-099552-09-3}}

==External links==
{{commons|Hadrian's Wall}}
{{wikivoyage|Hadrian's Wall}}
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01kkr42 In Our Time Radio series with Greg Woolf, Professor of Ancient History at the University of St Andrews, [[David Breeze]], Former Chief Inspector of Ancient Monuments for Scotland and Visiting Professor of Archaeology at the University of Durham and Lindsay Allason-Jones, Former Reader in Roman Material Culture at the University of Newcastle ]
* [http://www.visitnorthumberland.com/hadrians-wall Hadrian's Wall on the Official Northumberland Visitor website]
* [http://hadrianswallforum.proboards.com/ Hadrian's Wall Discussion Forum]
* [http://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31&id_site=430 UNESCO Frontiers of the Roman Empire]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/5119840.stm News on the Wall path]
* [http://www.english-lakes.com/hadrians_wall.htm English Lakes article]
* [http://www.iromans.co.uk/ iRomans]—website with interactive map of Cumbrian section of Hadrian Wall
* [http://connectinglight.info/ Connecting Light]—art installation

{{Milecastles}}
{{Hadrian's Wall forts}}
{{World Heritage Sites in the United Kingdom}}
{{English heritage cumbria}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Hadrian's Wall}}
[[Category:Hadrian's Wall| ]]
[[Category:128 establishments]]
[[Category:2nd-century establishments in Roman Britain]]
[[Category:2nd-century fortifications]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman buildings and structures in Britain]]
[[Category:Anglo-Scottish border]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Cumbria]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Northumberland]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Tyne and Wear]]
[[Category:Border barriers]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures completed in the 2nd century]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Cumbria]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Northumberland]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Tyne and Wear]]
[[Category:English Heritage sites in Cumbria]]
[[Category:English Heritage sites in Northumberland]]
[[Category:English Heritage sites in Tyne and Wear]]
[[Category:Fortification lines]]
[[Category:Hadrianic building projects]]
[[Category:Military history of Cumbria]]
[[Category:Military history of Northumberland]]
[[Category:Military history of Tyne and Wear]]
[[Category:Nerva–Antonine dynasty]]
[[Category:Northern England]]
[[Category:Roman fortifications in England]]
[[Category:Roman frontiers]]
[[Category:Roman Limes]]
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[[Category:Roman sites in Cumbria]]
[[Category:Roman sites in Northumberland]]
[[Category:Roman walls in England]]
[[Category:Ruins in Cumbria]]
[[Category:Ruins in Northumberland]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Cumbria]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Northumberland]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Tyne and Wear]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in England]]

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