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The "conflict thesis" is a historiographical approach in the history of science which maintains that there is an intrinsic intellectual conflict between religion and science and that the relationship between religion and science inevitably leads to hostility; examples to support this thesis have commonly been drawn from the relations between science and religion in Western Europe. The thesis retains support among some scientists and in the public,^[1] while all historians of science reject the thesis, especially in its original strict form.^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]

The historical conflict thesis

In the 1800s the relationship between science and religion became an actual formal topic of discourse, while before this no one had pitted science against religion or vice versa, though occasional interactions were expressed in the past.^[6] More specifically, it was around the mid-1800s that discussion of "science and religion" first emerged because before this time, "science" still included moral and metaphysical dimensions, was not inherently linked to the scientific method, and the term "scientist" did not emerge until 1834.^[7] The scientist John William Draper and the writer Andrew Dickson White were the most influential exponents of the conflict thesis between religion and science. Draper had been the speaker in the British Association meeting of 1860 which led to the famous confrontation between Bishop Wilberforce and Huxley over Darwinism, and in America "the religious controversy over biological evolution reached its most critical stages in the late 1870s".^[8] In the early 1870s Draper was invited by American science popularizer Edward Livingston Youmans to write a History of the Conflict between Religion and Science (1874), a book replying to contemporary issues in Roman Catholicism, such as the doctrine of papal infallibility, and mostly criticizing what he claimed to be anti-intellectualism in the Catholic tradition,^[9] but also making criticisms of Islam and of Protestantism.^[10] Draper's preface summarises the conflict thesis:

The history of Science is not a mere record of isolated discoveries; it is a narrative of the conflict of two contending powers, the expansive force of the human intellect on one side, and the compression arising from traditionary faith and human interests on the other.^[11]

In 1874 White published his thesis in Popular Science Monthly and in book form as The Warfare of Science:

In all modern history, interference with science in the supposed interest of religion, no matter how conscientious such interference may have been, has resulted in the direst evils both to religion and to science—and invariably. And, on the other hand, all untrammeled scientific investigation, no matter how dangerous to religion some of its stages may have seemed, for the time, to be, has invariably resulted in the highest good of religion and of science.^[12]

In 1896, White published A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom, the culmination of over thirty years of research and publication on the subject, criticizing what he saw as restrictive, dogmatic forms of Christianity. In the introduction, White emphasized that he arrived at his position after the difficulties of assisting Ezra Cornell in establishing a university without any official religious affiliation.

James Joseph Walsh, M.D., the historian of medicine, criticized White's perspective as anti-historical in The Popes and Science; the History of the Papal Relations to Science During the Middle Ages and Down to Our Own Time (1908),^[13] a book dedicated to Pope Pius X:

the story of the supposed opposition of the Church and the Popes and the ecclesiastical authorities to science in any of its branches, is founded entirely on mistaken notions. Most of it is quite imaginary. Much of it is due to the exaggeration of the significance of the Galileo incident. Only those who know nothing about the history of medicine and of science continue to harbor it. That Dr. White's book, contradicted as it is so directly by all serious histories of medicine and of science, should have been read by so many thousands in this country, and should have been taken seriously by educated men, physicians, teachers, and even professors of science who want to know the history of their own sciences, only shows how easily even supposedly educated men may be led to follow their prejudices rather than their mental faculties, and emphasizes the fact that the tradition that there is no good that can possibly come out of the Nazareth of the times before the reformation, still dominates the intellects of many educated people who think that they are far from prejudice and have minds perfectly open to conviction.^[14]

In God and Nature (1986), David Lindberg and Ronald Numbers report that "White's Warfare apparently did not sell as briskly as Draper's Conflict, but in the end it proved more influential, partly, it seems, because Draper's strident anti-Catholicism soon dated his work and because White's impressive documentation gave the appearance of sound scholarship".^[15] During the 20th century, historians' acceptance of the conflict thesis declined until rejected in the 1970s. David B. Wilson notes:

Despite the growing number of scholarly modifications and rejections of the conflict model from the 1950's ... in the 1970s leading historians of the nineteenth century still felt required to attack it. ... Whatever the reason for the continued survival of the conflict thesis, two other books on the nineteenth century that were published in the 1970s hastened its final demise among historians of science ... 1974 ... Frank Turner ... Between Science and Religion ... Even more decisive was the penetrating critique "Historians and Historiography" ... [by] James Moore ... at the beginning of his Post-Darwinian Controversies (1979).^[16]

In his course on science and religion, historian Lawrence Principe summarizes Draper's and White's works by saying, "While we can look today with astonishment upon the shoddy character of Draper and White’s writings, their books have had enormous impact, and we can’t deny that. Much of this is due to their great success in their creating a myth for science as a religion. Their myth of science as a religion is replete with battles, and martyrdoms, and saints, and creeds. And as we know, or should know, myths are often much more powerful than historical realities." ^[17]

In the coursebook, Principe writes, "No serious historians of science or of the science-religion issue today maintain the warfare thesis...The origins of the warfare thesis lie in the late 19th century, specifically in the work of two men - John William Draper and Andrew Dickson White. These men had specific political purposes in mind when arguing their case, and the historical foundations of their work are unreliable." Principe, Lawrence M. (2006). Science and Religion. The Teaching Company. p. 7.

Regarding the scholarship of Draper's work, Principe says

How does he [John William Draper] support his contention of conflict? Well, unfortunately, with some of the worst historical writing you are ever likely to come across. Historical facts are confected, causes and chronologies twisted to the author’s purpose. We find interpretations made merely by declaration. We find quotations violently taken out of context. And instances, quite a few of them where Draper claims a historical writer said something in fact 180 degrees away from what he actually claimed...Much of Draper’s book is so ridiculous, so malodramatic, so rabid, it’s hard for a knowledgeable person actually to read it without a wry smirk...Let’s start with a simple and a notorious example: the idea that before Columbus people thought that the world was flat. Well, in fact, it is Draper and White, specifically, both of them, who bear most of the blame for popularizing this baseless view to the extent that nowadays, 80 percent of school teachers still foist this upon poor innocent school children. The fact is that of course the sphericity of the Earth was well established by the fifth century BC by the Greeks, and a good measure of its circumference made by the third century BC. And these facts were never forgotten in learned Western Culture. ^[18]

Principe's summary comment on Draper's work at the end of his coursebook reads: "The book that started the conflict myth. Take a sense of humor and/or a stiff drink with this dated bit of melodrama."^[19]

Modern views

Academic

Historians of science today have moved away from a conflict model, which is based mainly on two historical episodes (those involving Galileo and Darwin) in favor of a "complexity" model, because religious figures took positions on both sides of each dispute and there was no overall aim by any party involved in discrediting religion.^[20] Biologist Stephen Jay Gould said: "White's and Draper's accounts of the actual interaction between science and religion in Western history do not differ greatly. Both tell a tale of bright progress continually sparked by science. And both develop and use the same myths to support their narrative, the flat-earth legend prominently among them".^[21] In a summary of the historiography of the conflict thesis, Colin A. Russell, the former President of Christians in Science, said that "Draper takes such liberty with history, perpetuating legends as fact that he is rightly avoided today in serious historical study. The same is nearly as true of White, though his prominent apparatus of prolific footnotes may create a misleading impression of meticulous scholarship".^[22]

In Science & Religion, Gary Ferngren proposes a complex relationship between religion and science:

While some historians had always regarded the Draper-White thesis as oversimplifying and distorting a complex relationship, in the late twentieth century it underwent a more systematic reevaluation. The result is the growing recognition among historians of science that the relationship of religion and science has been much more positive than is sometimes thought. Although popular images of controversy continue to exemplify the supposed hostility of Christianity to new scientific theories, studies have shown that Christianity has often nurtured and encouraged scientific endeavour, while at other times the two have co-existed without either tension or attempts at harmonization. If Galileo and the Scopes trial come to mind as examples of conflict, they were the exceptions rather than the rule.^[23]

Some modern historians of science (such as Peter Barker, Bernard R. Goldstein, and Crosbie Smith) propose that scientific discoveries - such as Kepler's laws of planetary motion in the 17th century, and the reformulation of physics in terms of energy, in the 19th century - were driven by religion.^[24] Religious organizations and clerics figure prominently in the broad histories of science, until the professionalization of the scientific enterprise, in the 19th century, led to tensions between scholars taking religious and secular approaches to nature.^[25] Even the prominent examples of religion's apparent conflict with science, the Galileo affair (1614) and the Scopes trial (1925), were not pure instances of conflict between science and religion, but included personal and political facts in the development of each conflict.^[26]

Galileo

The Galileo affair is one of the few examples commonly used by advocates of the conflict thesis. Maurice Finocchiaro writes that the Galileo affair epitomizes the common view of "the conflict between enlightened science and obscurantist religion," and that this view promotes "the myth that alleges the incompatibility between science and religion." Finocchiaro writes, "I believe that such a thesis is erroneous, misleading, and simplistic," and refers to John Draper, Andrew White, Voltaire, Einstein, Bertrand Russell, and Karl Popper as writers or icons who have promoted it.^[27] Finocchiaro also describes as mythical the notion that Galileo "saw" the earth's motion, since this direct observation was only possible in the 21st century, and the idea that Galileo was "imprisoned," since he was "actually held under house arrest."^[27] He notes that the situation was complex and objections to the Copernican system included scientific, philosophical, and theological arguments.^[27]

The Galileo affair was a sequence of events, beginning around 1610,^[28] culminating with the trial and condemnation of Galileo Galilei by the Roman Catholic Inquisition in 1633 for his support of heliocentrism.^[29] In 1610, Galileo published his Sidereus Nuncius (Starry Messenger), describing the surprising observations that he had made with the new telescope, namely the phases of Venus and the Galilean moons of Jupiter. With these observations he promoted the heliocentric theory of Nicolaus Copernicus (published in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium in 1543). Galileo's initial discoveries were met with opposition within the Catholic Church, and in 1616, the Inquisition declared heliocentrism to be formally heretical. Heliocentric books were banned and Galileo was ordered to refrain from holding, teaching or defending heliocentric ideas.^[30]

Pope Urban VIII had been an admirer and supporter of Galileo, and there is evidence he did not believe the Inquisition's declaration rendered heliocentrism a heresy. Urban may have rather viewed heliocentrism as a potentially dangerous or rash doctrine that nevertheless had utility in astronomical calculations.^[27] In 1632, Galileo, now an old man, published his Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, which implicitly defended heliocentrism, and was popular. Pope Urban VIII had asked that his own views on the matter be included in Galileo's book, and were voiced by a character named Simplicio who was a simpleton.^[31]^[32] This angered the Pope and weakened Galileo's position politically.^[33] Responding to mounting controversy over theology, astronomy and philosophy, the Roman Inquisition tried Galileo in 1633 and found him "vehemently suspect of heresy", sentencing him to indefinite imprisonment. Galileo's Dialogue was banned, the publication of his past or future works forbidden, he was ordered to "abjure, curse and detest" heliocentric ideas.^[34] Galileo was kept under house arrest until his death in 1642.^[35]

Observations that favored the Copernican model over the Ptolemaic or other alternative models accumulated over time:^[27] the emergence of Newtonian mechanics later in the 17th century, the observation of the stellar aberration of light by James Bradley in the 18th century, the analysis of orbital motions of binary stars by William Herschel in the 19th century, and the accurate measurement of the stellar parallax in the 19th century.^[36]^[37] According to physicist Christopher Graney, Galileo's own observations did not actually support the Copernican view, but were more consistent with Tycho Brahe's hybrid model where the Earth did not move, and everything else circled around it and the Sun.^[38] Copernicus' work De revolutionibus remained on the Index of banned books until 1758.^[39]

Scientist and public perceptions

This thesis is still held to be true in whole or in part by some non-historians such as the theoretical physicist and cosmologist Stephen Hawking who has said "There is a fundamental difference between religion, which is based on authority, [and] science, which is based on observation and reason. Science will win because it works."^[40] Others, such as Steven Weinberg, grant that it is possible for science and religion to be compatible since some prominent scientists are also religious, but he sees some significant tensions that potentially weaken religious beliefs overall.^[41]

A study done on scientists from 21 American universities showed that most did not perceive conflict between science and religion. In the study, the strength of religiosity in the home in which a scientist was raised, current religious attendance, peers' attitudes toward religion, all had an impact on whether or not scientists saw religion and science as in conflict. Scientists who had grown up with a religion and retained that identity or had identified as spiritual or had religious attendance tended to perceive less or no conflict. However, those not attending religious services were more likely to adopt a conflict paradigm. Additionally, scientists were more likely to reject conflict thesis if their peers held positive views of religion.^[42]

Science historian Ronald Numbers suggests the conflict theory lingers in a popular belief, inclusive of scientists and clerics alike, and that while history reflects an intrinsic and inevitable intellectual conflict between (Judeo-Christian) religion and science, it is perpetuated by the polemics surrounding controversies involving creation–evolution, stem cells, and birth control.^[43] Many religious groups have made statements regarding the compatibility of religion and science,^[44] urging, for example, "school board members to preserve the integrity of the science curriculum by affirming the teaching of the theory of evolution as a core component of human knowledge. We ask that science remain science and that religion remain religion, two very different, but complementary, forms of truth."^[45] The Magis Center for Reason and Faith was founded specifically to apply science in support of belief in a deity and the Christian religion.^[46] Some scholars such as Brian Stanley and Denis Alexander propose that mass media are partly responsible for popularizing conflict theory,^[47] most notably the Flat-earth myth that prior to Columbus people believed the Earth was flat.^[48] David C. Lindberg and Numbers point out that "there was scarcely a Christian scholar of the Middle Ages who did not acknowledge Earth's sphericity and even know its approximate circumference".^[48]^[49] Numbers gives the following as mistakes arising from conflict theory that have gained widespread currency: "the Church prohibited autopsies and dissections during the Middle Ages", "the rise of Christianity killed off ancient science", and "the medieval Christian church suppressed the growth of the natural sciences".^[43] Some Christian writers, notably Reijer Hooykaas and Stanley Jaki, have argued that Christianity was important, if not essential, for the rise of modern science. Lindberg and Numbers, however, see this apologetical writing as lacking in careful historical study and overstating the case for a connection.^[50]

Research on perceptions of science among the American public concludes that most religious groups see no general epistemological conflict with science, and that they have no differences with nonreligious groups in propensity to seek out scientific knowledge, although there may be epistemic or moral conflicts when scientists make counterclaims to religious tenets.^[51]^[52] The Pew Center made similar findings and also noted that the majority of Americans (80–90%) strongly support scientific research, agree that science makes society and individual's lives better, and 8 in 10 Americans would be happy if their children were to become scientists.^[53] Even strict creationists tend to express very favorable views towards science.^[54] A study of US college students concluded that the majority of undergraduates in both the natural and social sciences do not see conflict between science and religion. Another finding in the study was that it is more likely for students to move from a conflict perspective to an independence or collaboration perspective than vice versa.^[55]

References

^ Ferngren, G.B. (2002). Ferngren, G.B. (ed.). Science & Religion: A Historical Introduction. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. x. ISBN 0-8018-7038-0. ... while [John] Brooke's view [of a complexity thesis rather than an historical conflict thesis] has gained widespread acceptance among professional historians of science, the traditional view remains strong elsewhere, not least in the popular mind
^ Shapin, S. (1996). The Scientific Revolution. University of Chicago Press. p. 195. In the late Victorian period it was common to write about the 'warfare between science and religion' and to presume that the two bodies of culture must always have been in conflict. However, it is a very long time since these attitudes have been held by historians of science.
^ Russel, C.A. (2002). Ferngren, G.B. (ed.). Science & Religion: A Historical Introduction. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 7. ISBN 0-8018-7038-0. The conflict thesis, at least in its simple form, is now widely perceived as a wholly inadequate intellectual framework within which to construct a sensible and realistic historiography of Western science
^ Brooke, J. H. (1991). Science and Religion: Some Historical Perspectives. Cambridge University Press. p. 42. In its traditional forms, the conflict thesis has been largely discredited.
^ Harrison, Peter (2015), "That religion has typically impeded the progress of science", in Numbers, Ronald L.; Kampourakis, Kostas (eds.), Newton's Apple and Other Myths about Science, Harvard University Press, pp. 195–201
^ Ronald Numbers, ed. (2009). Galileo Goes To Jail and Other Myths About Science and Religion. p. 3. ISBN 9780674057418.
^ Harrison, Peter (2015). "6. Professing Science". The Territories of Science and Religion. ISBN 022618448X.
^ Moore, James R. The Post-Darwinian Controversies. p. 10. quoting Schlesinger. But see also James C. Ungureanu, "A Yankee at Oxford: John William Draper at the British Association for the Advancement of Science at Oxford, 30 June 1860," Notes and Records: The Royal Society Journal of the History of Science (Dec 2015).
^ Alexander, D (2001), Rebuilding the Matrix, Lion Publishing, ISBN 0-7459-5116-3 (pg. 217)
^ "Averroes, in his old age - he died A. D. 1193 - was expelled from Spain; the religious party had triumphed over the philosophical. He was denounced as a traitor to religion. An opposition to philosophy had been organized all over the Mussulman world. There was hardly a philosopher who was not punished." (p142) "The two rival divisions of the Christian Church - Protestant and Catholic - were thus in accord on one point: to tolerate no science except such as they considered to be agreeable to the Scriptures." (p218)
^ John William Draper, History of the Conflict Religion, D. Appleton and Co. (1881)
^ White, Andrew Dickson (1876). The Warfare of Science. p. 8.
^ Fordam University Press, 1908, Kessinger Publishing, reprinted 2003. ISBN 0-7661-3646-9 Reviews: [1] [2]
^ Walsh, James Joseph, The Popes and Science; the History of the Papal Relations to Science During the Middle Ages and Down to Our Own Time, Fordam University Press, New York 1908, p. 19.
^ David C. Lindberg, Ronald L. Numbers, God & Nature: Historical Essays on the Encounter Between Christianity and Science, University of California Press (April 29, 1986)
^ Wilson, David B. The Historiography of Science and Religion in Ferngren, Gary B. (2002). Science & Religion: A Historical Introduction. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-7038-0. p. 21, 23
^ Principe, Lawrence M. (2006). Science and Religion. The Teaching Company. p. Lecture 2.
^ Principe, Lawrence M. (2006). Science and Religion. The Teaching Company. p. Lecture 2.
^ Principe, Lawrence M. (2006). Science and Religion. The Teaching Company. p. 79.
^ Jones, Richard H. (2011). For the Glory of God : The Role of Christianity in the Rise and Development of Modern Science. University Press of America. p. 139. ISBN 9780761855668.
^ Gould, S.J. (1996). "The late birth of a flat earth". Dinosaur in a Haystack: Reflections in Natural History. New York: Crown: 38–52.
^ Russell, Colin A., "The Conflict of Science and Religion", Encyclopedia of the History of Science and Religion, p. 15, New York 2000
^ Gary Ferngren (editor). Science & Religion: A Historical Introduction. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-8018-7038-0. (Introduction, p. ix)
^ Barker, Peter, and Goldstein, Bernard R. "Theological Foundations of Kepler's Astronomy". Osiris, Volume 16: Science in Theistic Contexts, University of Chicago Press, 2001, pp. 88–113; Smith, Crosbie. The Science of Energy: A Cultural History of Energy Physics in Victorian Britain. London: The Athlone PRess, 1998.
^ See, for example, the chapters on "Geology and Paleontology" (by Nicolaas A. Rupke), "Natural History" (by Peter M. Hess), and "Charles Darwin" (by James Moore) in Gary Ferngren (ed.), Science and Religion: A Historical Introduction.
^ Blackwell, Richard J., "Galileo Galilei", Science and Religion: A Historical Introduction; Larson, Edward J. Summer for the Gods: The Scopes Trial and America's Continuing Battle over Science and Religion. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1997.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Finocchiaro, Maurice A. (2014). "Introduction". The Trial of Galileo : Essential Documents. ISBN 1624661327.
^ Blackwell (1991, p.2). Blackwell (1991, p.50) dates the start of the Galileo affair to 1610. Finocchiaro (1989, p.1) puts it a few years later, in 1613.
^ Finocchiaro (1989, p.1): "By the 'Galileo affair' is meant the sequence of developments which began in 1613 and culminated with the trial and condemnation of Galileo Galilei by the Roman Catholic Inquisition in 1633."
^ Heilbron (2010), p.218
^ Finocchiaro (1997), p. 82; Moss & Wallace (2003), p. 11
^ See Langford (1966, pp. 133–134), and Seeger (1966, p. 30), for example. Drake (1978, p. 355) asserts that Simplicio's character is modelled on the Aristotelian philosophers, Lodovico delle Colombe and Cesare Cremonini, rather than on Pope Urban. He also considers that the demand for Galileo to include the Pope's argument in the Dialogue left him with no option but to put it in the mouth of Simplicio (Drake, 1953, p. 491). Even Arthur Koestler, who is generally quite harsh on Galileo in The Sleepwalkers (1959), after noting that Urban suspected Galileo of having intended Simplicio to be a caricature of him, says "this of course is untrue" (1959, p. 483).
^ Lindberg, David. "Beyond War and Peace: A Reappraisal of the Encounter between Christianity and Science".
^ Fantoli (2005, p. 139), Finocchiaro (1989, pp. 288–293).
^ Drake (1978, p.367), Sharratt (1994, p.184), Favaro (1905, 16:209, Archived September 27, 2007, at the Wayback Machine 230) Archived September 27, 2007, at the Wayback Machine Template:It icon. When Fulgenzio Micanzio, one of Galileo's friends in Venice, sought to have Galileo's Discourse on Floating Bodies reprinted in 1635, he was informed by the Venetian Inquisitor that the Inquisition had forbidden further publication of any of Galileo's works (Favaro, 1905, 16:209) Template:It icon, and was later shown a copy of the order (Favaro,1905, 16:230) .Template:It icon When the Dutch publishers Elzevir published Galileo's Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences in 1638, some five years after his trial, they did so under the pretense that a manuscript he had presented to the French Ambassador to Rome for preservation and circulation to interested intellectuals had been used without his knowledge (Sharratt, 1994, p.184; Galilei, 1954 p.xvii; Favaro, 1898, 8:43 Archived September 27, 2007, at the Wayback Machine Template:It icon). Return to other article: Galileo Galilei ; Dialogue ; Two New Sciences
^ Biékowska, Barbara, ed. (2013). Scientific World of Copernicus: On the Occasion of the 500th Anniversary of his Birth 1473-1973. Springer. pp. 63–65. ISBN 9401026181.
^ "Did Galileo have Proof of the Earth's Movement?". Tel-Aviv University.
^ Sanderson, Katharine (5 March 2010). "Galileo backed Copernicus despite data: Stars viewed through early telescopes suggested that Earth stood still". Nature. doi:10.1038/news.2010.105.
^ Finnochiario (2007), p.154
^ HEUSSNER, KI MAE (June 7, 2010). "Stephen Hawking on Religion: 'Science Will Win'". ABC News. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |url= (help)
^ Weinberg, Steven (2011). Lake Views: This World and the Universe. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. pp. 231–237. ISBN 0674062302.
^ Ecklund, Elaine Howard; Park, Jerry Z. (2009). "Conflict Between Religion and Science Among Academic Scientists?". Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. 48 (2): 276–292. doi:10.1111/j.1468-5906.2009.01447.x.
^ ^a ^b Ronald Numbers (Lecturer) (May 11, 2006). Myths and Truths in Science and Religion: A historical perspective (Video Lecture). University of Cambridge (Howard Building, Downing College): The Faraday Institute for Science and Religion.
^ "Statements from Religious Organizations". NCSE. 2008-09-08. Retrieved 2018-05-23.
^ "188 Wisconsin Clergy". NCSE. 2008-09-08. Retrieved 2018-06-22.
^ "Science, Reason & Faith". Magis Center. Retrieved 2018-05-23.
^ "Templeton Foundation Post-dinner Discussion", after the Myths and Truths in Science and Religion: A historical perspective lecture Ronald Numbers, 11 May 2006, at St Edmunds College, Cambridge; the transcript is available at http://www.st-edmunds.cam.ac.uk/faraday/CIS/Numbers/
^ ^a ^b Jeffrey Russell. Inventing the Flat Earth: Columbus and Modern Historians. Praeger Paperback; New Ed edition (30 January 1997). ISBN 0-275-95904-X; ISBN 978-0-275-95904-3.
^ Lindberg, David C.; Numbers, Ronald L. (1986). "Beyond War and Peace: A Reappraisal of the Encounter between Christianity and Science". Church History. 55 (3). Cambridge University Press: 338–354. doi:10.2307/3166822. JSTOR 3166822.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
^ Lindberg, David C.; Numbers, Ronald L. (1986), "Introduction", God & Nature: Historical Essays on the Encounter Between Christianity and Science, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, pp. 5, 12, ISBN 0520055381
^ Evans, John (2011). "Epistemological and Moral Conflict Between Religion and Science". Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. 50 (4): 707–727. doi:10.1111/j.1468-5906.2011.01603.x.
^ Baker, Joseph O. (2012). "Public Perceptions of Incompatibility Between "Science and Religion"". Public Understanding of Science. 21 (3): 340–353. doi:10.1177/0963662511434908.
^ Scott Keeter; Gregory Smith; David Masci. "Religious Belief and Public Attitudes About Science in the US" (PDF). Pew Research Center. pp. 1–2, 13.
^ Keeter, Scott; Smith, Gregory; Masci, David (2011). "Religious Belief and Attitudes about Science in the United States". The Culture of science: How the Public Relates to Science Across the Globe. New York: Routledge. p. 336,345–346. ISBN 978-0415873697. The United States is perhaps the most religious out of the advanced industrial democracies." ; "In fact, large majorities of the traditionally religious American nevertheless hold very positive views of science and scientists. Even people who accept a strict creationist view, regarding the origins of life are mostly favorable towards science." ; "According to the National Science Foundation, public attitudes about science are more favorable in the United States than in Europe, Russia, and Japan, despite great differences across these cultures in level of religiosity (National Science Foundation, 2008).
^ Christopher P. Scheitle (2011). "U.S. College students' perception of religion and science: Conflict, collaboration, or independence? A research note". Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. 50 (1). Blackwell: 175–186. doi:10.1111/j.1468-5906.2010.01558.x. ISSN 1468-5906.

@@ Line 129: / Line 129: @@
 The Galileo affair is one of the few examples commonly used by advocates of the conflict thesis. Maurice Finocchiaro writes that the Galileo affair epitomizes the common view of "the conflict between enlightened science and obscurantist religion," and that this view promotes "the myth that alleges the incompatibility between science and religion." Finocchiaro writes, "I believe that such a thesis is erroneous, misleading, and simplistic," and refers to John Draper, Andrew White, Voltaire, Einstein, Bertrand Russell, and Karl Popper as writers or icons who have promoted it.<ref name="Trial Galileo Essential" /> Finocchiaro also describes as mythical the notion that Galileo "saw" the earth's motion, since this direct observation was only possible in the 21st century, and the idea that Galileo was "imprisoned," since he was "actually held under house arrest."<ref name="Trial Galileo Essential" /> He notes that the situation was complex and objections to the Copernican system included scientific, philosophical, and theological arguments.<ref name="Trial Galileo Essential" />
-The Galileo affair was a sequence of events, beginning around 1610,<ref>Blackwell ([[#Reference-Blackwell-1991|1991]], p.2). Blackwell ([[#Reference-Blackwell-1991|1991]], p.50) dates the start of the Galileo affair to 1610. Finocchiaro ([[#Reference-Finocchiaro-1989|1989]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=wKCZFJuMCaQC&pg=PA1 p.1]) puts it a few years later, in 1613.</ref> culminating with the trial and condemnation of [[Galileo Galilei]] by the [[Roman Inquisition|Roman Catholic Inquisition]] in 1633 for his support of [[heliocentrism]].<ref>Finocchiaro ([[#Reference-Finocchiaro-1989|1989]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=wKCZFJuMCaQC&pg=PA1 p.1]): "By the 'Galileo affair' is meant the sequence of developments which began in 1613 and culminated with the trial and condemnation of Galileo Galilei by the Roman Catholic Inquisition in 1633."</ref> In 1610, Galileo published his ''[[Sidereus Nuncius]] (Starry Messenger)'', describing the surprising observations that he had made with the new [[telescope]], namely the phases of [[Venus]] and the [[Galilean moons]] of Jupiter. With these observations he promoted the [[heliocentrism|heliocentric]] theory of [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] (published in ''[[De revolutionibus orbium coelestium]]'' in 1543). Galileo's initial discoveries were met with opposition within the Catholic Church, and in 1616, the Inquisition declared heliocentrism to be formally heretical. Heliocentric books were banned and Galileo was ordered to refrain from holding, teaching or defending heliocentric ideas.<ref name=h218>Heilbron (2010), p.218</ref>
+The Galileo affair was a sequence of events, beginning around 1610,<ref>Blackwell ([[#Reference-Blackwell-1991|1991]], p.2). Blackwell ([[#Reference-Blackwell-1991|1991]], p.50) dates the start of the Galileo affair to 1610. Finocchiaro ([[#Reference-Finocchiaro-1989|1989]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=wKCZFJuMCaQC&pg=PA1 p.1]) puts it a few years later, in 1613.</ref> culminating with the trial and condemnation of [[Galileo Galilei]] by the [[Roman Inquisition|Roman Catholic Inquisition]] in 1633 for his support of [[heliocentrism]].<ref>Finocchiaro ([[#Reference-Finocchiaro-1989|1989]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=wKCZFJuMCaQC&pg=PA1 p.1]): "By the 'Galileo affair' is meant the sequence of developments which began in 1613 and culminated with the trial and condemnation of Galileo Galilei by the Roman Catholic Inquisition in 1633."</ref> In 1610, Galileo published his ''[[Sidereus Nuncius]] (Starry Messenger)'', describing the surprising observations that he had made with the new [[telescope]], namely the phases of [[Venus]] and the [[Galilean moons]] of Jupiter. With these observations he promoted the [[Heliocentrism|heliocentric]] theory of [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] (published in ''[[De revolutionibus orbium coelestium]]'' in 1543). Galileo's initial discoveries were met with opposition within the Catholic Church, and in 1616, the Inquisition declared heliocentrism to be formally heretical. Heliocentric books were banned and Galileo was ordered to refrain from holding, teaching or defending heliocentric ideas.<ref name=h218>Heilbron (2010), p.218</ref>
-Pope Urban VIII had been an admirer and supporter of Galileo, and there is evidence he did not believe the inquisition's declaration rendered heliocentrism a heresy. Urban may have rather viewed Heliocentrism as a potentially dangerous or rash doctrine that nevertheless had utility in astronomical calculations.<ref name="Trial Galileo Essential">{{cite book|last1=Finocchiaro|first1=Maurice A.|title=The Trial of Galileo : Essential Documents|date=2014|isbn=1624661327|chapter=Introduction}}</ref> In 1632, Galileo, now an old man, published his  ''[[Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems]]'', which implicitly defended heliocentrism, and was popular. Pope Urban VIII had asked that his own views on the matter be included in Galileo's book, and were voiced by a character named ''Simplicio'' who was a simpleton.<ref>[[#Reference-Finocchiaro-1997|Finocchiaro (1997)]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=Li4eh7JIMtIC&pg=PA82 p. 82]; [[#Reference-Moss&Wallace-2003|Moss & Wallace (2003)]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=Lw50esHmgacC&pg=PA11 p. 11]</ref><ref>See Langford [[#Reference-Langford-1998|(1966, pp. 133–134)]], and Seeger [[#Reference-Seeger-1966|(1966, p. 30)]], for example. Drake [[#Reference-Drake-1978|(1978, p. 355)]] asserts that Simplicio's character is modelled on the Aristotelian philosophers, Lodovico delle Colombe and [[Cesare Cremonini (philosopher)|Cesare Cremonini]], rather than on Pope Urban. He also considers that the demand for Galileo to include the Pope's argument in the ''Dialogue'' left him with no option but to put it in the mouth of Simplicio [[#Reference-Drake-1953|(Drake, 1953, p. 491)]]. Even [[Arthur Koestler]], who is generally quite harsh on Galileo in [[The Sleepwalkers (Koestler non-fiction book)|''The Sleepwalkers'']] [[#Reference-Koestler-1990|(1959)]], after noting that Urban suspected Galileo of having intended Simplicio to be a caricature of him, says "this of course is untrue" [[#Reference-Koestler-1990|(1959, p. 483)]].</ref> This angered the Pope and weakened Galileo's position politically.<ref>{{cite web|last = Lindberg|first = David|title = Beyond War and Peace:  A Reappraisal of the Encounter between Christianity and Science|url = http://www.asa3.org/ASA/PSCF/1987/PSCF9-87Lindberg.html}}</ref> Responding to mounting controversy over [[theology]], [[astronomy]] and [[philosophy]], the [[Roman Inquisition]] tried Galileo in 1633 and found him "vehemently suspect of [[heresy]]", sentencing him to [[indefinite imprisonment]]. Galileo's ''Dialogue'' was banned, the publication of his past or future works forbidden, he was ordered to "abjure, curse and detest" heliocentric ideas.<ref>Fantoli (2005, p. 139), Finocchiaro (1989, pp. 288–293).</ref> Galileo was kept under house arrest until his death in 1642.<ref>{{anchor|_note-publication-ban}}[[#Reference-Drake-1978|Drake (1978, p.367)]], [[#Reference-Sharratt-1994|Sharratt (1994, p.184)]], [[#Reference-Favaro-1890|Favaro]] [http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?VOL=16&VOLPAG=209 (1905, 16:209,] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927230419/http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?VOL=16&VOLPAG=209 |date=September 27, 2007 }} [http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?VOL=16&VOLPAG=230 230)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927234122/http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?VOL=16&VOLPAG=230 |date=September 27, 2007 }}{{it icon}}.  When Fulgenzio Micanzio, one of Galileo's friends in Venice, sought to have Galileo's ''Discourse on Floating Bodies'' reprinted in 1635, he was informed by the Venetian Inquisitor that the Inquisition had forbidden further publication of any of Galileo's works [[#Reference-Favaro-1890|(Favaro]], [http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?VOL=16&VOLPAG=209 1905, 16:209)] {{it icon}}, and was later shown a copy of the order [[#Reference-Favaro-1890|(Favaro]],[http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?VOL=16&VOLPAG=230 1905, 16:230)] .{{it icon}} When the Dutch publishers [[House of Elzevir|Elzevir]] published Galileo's ''Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences'' in 1638, some five years after his trial, they did so under the pretense that a manuscript he had presented to the French Ambassador to Rome for preservation and circulation to interested intellectuals had been used without his knowledge ([[#Reference-Sharratt-1994|Sharratt, 1994, p.184;]] [[#Reference-Galileo-1954|Galilei, 1954]] [http://oll.libertyfund.org/index.php?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=753&chapter=109888&layout=html p.xvii]; [[#Reference-Favaro-1890|Favaro]], [http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?VOL=8&VOLPAG=43 1898,  8:43] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927231938/http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?VOL=8&VOLPAG=43 |date=September 27, 2007 }} {{it icon}}). Return to other article: [[Galileo Galilei#note-publication-ban|Galileo Galilei]][[Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems#note-publication-ban|; Dialogue]][[Two New Sciences#note-publication-ban|; Two New Sciences]]</ref>
+Pope Urban VIII had been an admirer and supporter of Galileo, and there is evidence he did not believe the Inquisition's declaration rendered heliocentrism a heresy. Urban may have rather viewed heliocentrism as a potentially dangerous or rash doctrine that nevertheless had utility in astronomical calculations.<ref name="Trial Galileo Essential">{{cite book|last1=Finocchiaro|first1=Maurice A.|title=The Trial of Galileo : Essential Documents|date=2014|isbn=1624661327|chapter=Introduction}}</ref> In 1632, Galileo, now an old man, published his  ''[[Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems]]'', which implicitly defended heliocentrism, and was popular. Pope Urban VIII had asked that his own views on the matter be included in Galileo's book, and were voiced by a character named ''Simplicio'' who was a simpleton.<ref>[[#Reference-Finocchiaro-1997|Finocchiaro (1997)]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=Li4eh7JIMtIC&pg=PA82 p. 82]; [[#Reference-Moss&Wallace-2003|Moss & Wallace (2003)]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=Lw50esHmgacC&pg=PA11 p. 11]</ref><ref>See Langford [[#Reference-Langford-1998|(1966, pp. 133–134)]], and Seeger [[#Reference-Seeger-1966|(1966, p. 30)]], for example. Drake [[#Reference-Drake-1978|(1978, p. 355)]] asserts that Simplicio's character is modelled on the Aristotelian philosophers, Lodovico delle Colombe and [[Cesare Cremonini (philosopher)|Cesare Cremonini]], rather than on Pope Urban. He also considers that the demand for Galileo to include the Pope's argument in the ''Dialogue'' left him with no option but to put it in the mouth of Simplicio [[#Reference-Drake-1953|(Drake, 1953, p. 491)]]. Even [[Arthur Koestler]], who is generally quite harsh on Galileo in [[The Sleepwalkers (Koestler non-fiction book)|''The Sleepwalkers'']] [[#Reference-Koestler-1990|(1959)]], after noting that Urban suspected Galileo of having intended Simplicio to be a caricature of him, says "this of course is untrue" [[#Reference-Koestler-1990|(1959, p. 483)]].</ref> This angered the Pope and weakened Galileo's position politically.<ref>{{cite web|last = Lindberg|first = David|title = Beyond War and Peace:  A Reappraisal of the Encounter between Christianity and Science|url = http://www.asa3.org/ASA/PSCF/1987/PSCF9-87Lindberg.html}}</ref> Responding to mounting controversy over [[theology]], [[astronomy]] and [[philosophy]], the [[Roman Inquisition]] tried Galileo in 1633 and found him "vehemently suspect of [[heresy]]", sentencing him to [[indefinite imprisonment]]. Galileo's ''Dialogue'' was banned, the publication of his past or future works forbidden, he was ordered to "abjure, curse and detest" heliocentric ideas.<ref>Fantoli (2005, p. 139), Finocchiaro (1989, pp. 288–293).</ref> Galileo was kept under house arrest until his death in 1642.<ref>{{anchor|_note-publication-ban}}[[#Reference-Drake-1978|Drake (1978, p.367)]], [[#Reference-Sharratt-1994|Sharratt (1994, p.184)]], [[#Reference-Favaro-1890|Favaro]] [http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?VOL=16&VOLPAG=209 (1905, 16:209,] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927230419/http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?VOL=16&VOLPAG=209 |date=September 27, 2007 }} [http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?VOL=16&VOLPAG=230 230)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927234122/http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?VOL=16&VOLPAG=230 |date=September 27, 2007 }}{{it icon}}.  When Fulgenzio Micanzio, one of Galileo's friends in Venice, sought to have Galileo's ''Discourse on Floating Bodies'' reprinted in 1635, he was informed by the Venetian Inquisitor that the Inquisition had forbidden further publication of any of Galileo's works [[#Reference-Favaro-1890|(Favaro]], [http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?VOL=16&VOLPAG=209 1905, 16:209)] {{it icon}}, and was later shown a copy of the order [[#Reference-Favaro-1890|(Favaro]],[http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?VOL=16&VOLPAG=230 1905, 16:230)] .{{it icon}} When the Dutch publishers [[House of Elzevir|Elzevir]] published Galileo's ''Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences'' in 1638, some five years after his trial, they did so under the pretense that a manuscript he had presented to the French Ambassador to Rome for preservation and circulation to interested intellectuals had been used without his knowledge ([[#Reference-Sharratt-1994|Sharratt, 1994, p.184;]] [[#Reference-Galileo-1954|Galilei, 1954]] [http://oll.libertyfund.org/index.php?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=753&chapter=109888&layout=html p.xvii]; [[#Reference-Favaro-1890|Favaro]], [http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?VOL=8&VOLPAG=43 1898,  8:43] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927231938/http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?VOL=8&VOLPAG=43 |date=September 27, 2007 }} {{it icon}}). Return to other article: [[Galileo Galilei#note-publication-ban|Galileo Galilei]][[Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems#note-publication-ban|; Dialogue]][[Two New Sciences#note-publication-ban|; Two New Sciences]]</ref>
 Observations that favored the Copernican model over the Ptolemaic or other alternative models accumulated over time:<ref name="Trial Galileo Essential" /> the emergence of [[Classical mechanics|Newtonian mechanics]] later in the 17th century, the observation of the stellar aberration of light by [[James Bradley]] in the 18th century, the analysis of orbital motions of binary stars by [[William Herschel]] in the 19th century, and the accurate measurement of the stellar parallax in the 19th century.<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last = Biékowska|editor1-first = Barbara|title = Scientific World of Copernicus: On the Occasion of the 500th Anniversary of his Birth 1473-1973.|date = 2013|publisher = Springer|isbn = 9401026181|pages = 63–65}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=  Did Galileo have Proof of the Earth's Movement?|url = http://muse.tau.ac.il/museum/galileo/did_galileo.html|publisher = Tel-Aviv University}}</ref>  According to physicist Christopher Graney, Galileo's own observations did not actually support the Copernican view, but were more consistent with [[Tycho Brahe]]'s hybrid model where the Earth did not move, and everything else circled around it and the Sun.<ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Sanderson|first1 = Katharine|title = Galileo backed Copernicus despite data: Stars viewed through early telescopes suggested that Earth stood still|journal= Nature|date=5 March 2010|doi = 10.1038/news.2010.105|url = http://www.nature.com/news/2010/100305/full/news.2010.105.html}}</ref> Copernicus' work ''De revolutionibus'' remained on the Index of banned books until 1758.<ref>Finnochiario (2007), p.154</ref>